Corresponding author: Peter Neuenschwander (
Academic editor: C. Margules
The management schemes of four rain forest patches in southern Benin and south-western Nigeria, which led to the successful protection of numerous threatened plants and animals over the last 20 plus years, are analysed. Since climatic conditions are similar, tree composition depends largely on different availability of water and documented biodiversity mostly on the availability of taxonomic expertise. Management differs according to accessibility and human population pressure, from total closing off of the forest by an international institute near the mega-polis Ibadan to unmarked borders near Lanzron, a remote village in the lower Ouémé Valley, where foreigners are mostly excluded from visiting the site. In Benin, trees and wildlife (antelopes and monkeys) seem best protected where the local vodoun beliefs are adhered to. This is, however, not sufficient and development aid to support and benefit the local population is needed as exemplified in Zinvié. At the Ibadan and Drabo sites, long-term protection is assured by legally-binding land-titles. Since for all of Lanzron and part of Zinvié these are lacking securing them is a priority. In Ibadan, Nigeria, a major rehabilitation effort is concentrated on bringing relatively old grass land and former village sites under forest cover by planting local trees. Rehabilitation in Drabo, in southern Benin, relies on enriching the naturally occurring fallow succession with rare species from nearby threatened sacred forests. We demonstrate that reversing biodiversity loss is possible but requires a long-term commitment. Recommendations for protecting, stabilizing and enhancing similar small hotspots of biodiversity are made.
Neuenschwander P, Bown D, Hèdégbètan GC, Adomou A (2015) Long-term conservation and rehabilitation of threatened rain forest patches under different human population pressures in West Africa. Nature Conservation 13: 21–46. doi:
Today, most West African forests have been destroyed (
Interest in preserving these islands of biodiversity comes first from a widely shared moral imperative. Second, in an ethnographic perspective, these forests have served as worship centres of local belief and/or providers of medicine and food throughout history. Third, in a more practical manner, biodiversity conservation is important to the long-term sustainability of agriculture. A high degree of biodiversity is the basis of organic farming (
At present, the keepers of these landscapes, small-scale subsistence farmers, are often not or not yet in favour of nature protection in or near their communities (
In the present study, we look at four small forests, chosen for different management practices as they are imposed by different human population pressures. The four forests are reasonably well protected over the timespans of 10 to 30 years that the retrospective analysis covers. We describe the history and ecology of these forests and our efforts to rehabilitate them in order to answer the following questions: 1- Can biodiversity of plants and animals be preserved and augmented sustainably in small humid forest patches? 2- How can interactions with the local populations be managed to assure sustainability? We address the balance between exploitation and protection, and the role of local beliefs. And finally we present our educational efforts at improving the chances for sustainable protection under the predicted and already observed relentless population increase and climate change. For each forest, future trends are divined and activities to cope with them are indicated in an ‘Outlook’.
The study describes the conditions and history of four sites:
1) Campus of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture
It covers approximately 1000 ha and is situated alongside a major axis north of Ibadan, a fast-growing conurbation whose population exceeds 3 million. The campus is situated in a region of rolling topography at 186 to 240 m, which was acquired by
The reserve is at a ‘crossroads’ of sub-Saharan forest types, where rainforest meets savannah and at the westernmost limit of the Guinea-Congo forest adjoining the Dahomey Gap. It is fragmented by roads and other land uses. The largest block of forest was more or less intact until the 1980s when an area of 46.6 ha was cleared for alley-cropping and other experiments. After a decade of intensive use, this area was abandoned and became infested with
Soils are mostly shallow and acidic. The bedrock is of banded gneiss which weathers to form site-specific soils and saprolite (softened granite or gneiss) with characteristic exposed flattened outcrops. Clay, quartz gravel and sand predominate in uplands, laterite on lower and middle slopes, and poorly drained clayey and sandy soils in valley bottoms. Where trees and vegetation are cleared, organic matter is rapidly lost and soils have low water-holding capacity. Erosion is a major concern on forest access roads, trails, and other exposed areas. Aquifers are rare and groundwater is shallow and localized mostly in faults and troughs in the bedrock (
Annual rainfall in the Ibadan area averages 1300 mm and is heaviest in June (190 mm) and September (220 mm), with markedly less in August, and a pronounced dry season from November to March. Turbulent storms with heavy rain occur frequently during the wet season causing severe erosion of exposed soils and laterite roads. Typical daytime temperatures are 26–38 °C while at night the temperature rarely falls below 18 °C, occasionally dipping to 16 °C during Harmattan, which occurs mainly in January when dust-laden air currents flow from the north.
Research on biodiversity and conservation increased incrementally. Though some forest areas had been utilised as a resource for research (
Restoration was an important aspect of the current project. Over 85 tree species and many other indigenous plants were propagated. Most species were recovered from the
Reforestation was done by planting indigenous species after removal of invasive exotic species. The main area of reforestation was on the east bank of the reservoir. It is approximately 2.6 km long and 30–60 m wide. With the aim of controlling erosion and run-off of nutrients and agrochemicals, over 4400 trees of 45 species were planted in this degraded farmland, i.e., derived savannah grassland. Ensuring that small trees survive competition from giant grasses (
2) Sanctuaire des Singes, Drabo Gbo,
The monkey sanctuary of Drabo Gbo was founded in 1995, when the first author bought 2.5 ha of teak forest and agricultural land from the elders of Drabo Gbo, 30 km north of Cotonou, 12 km from the spreading town of Calavi. Up to 2005, more land was bought and today the sanctuary covers a total area of 14 ha of small old forest islands and rehabilitated forest adjacent to the villages of Drabo Gbo, with about 500 inhabitants, Drabo Fanto of the same size, and the still smaller village of Dodja. The sanctuary is reached over unsurfaced, often bad roads. Most parts of the forest edge are protected by a low fence consisting of lines of barbed wire with palm leaves inserted perpendicularly. This is more a marker for people to respect than a protective measure and leaves free access to wildlife.
The forests include the old sacred forest of Dodja (0.7 ha) north of Drabo Gbo which was not touched for over 100 years, but still shows signs of tree felling before this time. Another sacred forest, the Orojamè forest of Drabo Fanto, was created about 80 years ago by delineating a surface of 0.4 ha around an old
The forests grow on a deep lateritic soil and the water table throughout the area and the adjoining villages is at 25 m. Annual rainfall in Drabo averages 1200 mm spread over two rainy seasons and interrupted by a short dry season in mid-July-August. Early rains are highly irregular. Typical daytime temperatures fluctuate between 26 and 34 °C. Night temperatures rarely fall below 20 °C, but during Harmattan in January temperatures as low as 15 °C have been observed.
Rehabilitation of the forests was initiated by dozens of collection trips in the southern rainforest patches (Ahozon, Dangbo, Ewè, Lama, Niaouli, Pobè: see
In order to find open space for planting new trees 30–50 oil palms
At the time of purchase, the trees of each lot, particularly oil palms, were bought separately from the land in order to avoid problems with the sellers or, later, their children. Title deeds were obtained as new land was acquired between 1995 and 2003. All titles (a total of 25) were issued to the owner and registered with the central authorities. For some later land purchases, however, titles have not yet been obtained. In January 2014, the rights to all plots (except for the central house) were handed over in a ceremony to
3) Forêt de la Panthère of Kpotomè at Zinvié, Benin.
The Forêt de la Panthère, a forest island of 1.4 ha, is the relict of a much larger forest that 100 years ago sheltered the eponymous pair of sacred panthers. It is situated in the Zinvié arrondissement near the village of Kpotomey (in Fon language: ‘the panther village’), which has about 600 inhabitants. Initially, this forest belonged to the founder family collective; but about 50 years ago it was given on loan to the lagoon village of Gbodjè, which sacralised the forest and gave it to their vodoun deity. In 2007, as relations between owners and users had become conflict-ridden, the owners demanded that the forest be handed back. A recent decision by the justice recognized ownership by the family collective from Kpotomey against claims by the former users from Gbodjè. Ownership of the Forêt de la Panthère is, however, not yet recorded in any legal document.
This forest is situated on a ferralitic soil with sandy clay. The water table is at only 2–3 m depth. Climatic conditions and rainfall patterns are as in Drabo.
The owners of the forest do not deliberately rejuvenate it and the boundary is not marked by a fence. In order to rehabilitate parts of the forest, CREDI-ONG (French acronym for Non-government Organisation ‘Regional Research and Education Centre for Integrated Development’) started the creation of a green belt of 1.4 ha by buying up neighbouring lots in 2008. This land is left to develop into mature fallow and is sometimes enriched by planting trees, among them
4) Forêt de Bahazoun at Lanzron, Benin.
The forest of Bahazoun at Lanzron covers 50 ha and is the largest forest island in the community of Abomey-Calavi. Situated in the large floodplain of the Ouémé River, this forest has been, for many generations or over 100 years, in the hands of the same large family. Today, Lanzron (meaning ‘rich in jumping wild-life’) is a small village of about 100 inhabitants, which is accessible only over rural tracks that are highly degraded during the rainy season.
The Bahazoun forest, with its preliminary plant list by
All four sites are covered by semi-deciduous forests of the Guinea-Congolese zone ( = extinct in the wild = critically endangered = endangered = vulnerable
List of scientific plant names, according to = vulnerable = endangered = critically endangered = extinct in the wild
Species | Ibadan | Drabo | Zinvié | Lanzron |
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By necessity, human interactions are reported as anecdotes. Throughout, comparisons between the different sites are presented in Table
Conditions and management of four rainforest patches in a gradient from 1 to 5.
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Land owned by Nigerian Federal Govt., on 99-yr lease to
Offender is arrested and handed over to local police for prosecution
Staff of the international institute vs. inhabitants of surrounding city (few poor farmers – increasingly middle class, including
Currently no donor for forest as such
Small areas of this forest have a high diversity of plant species, providing a snap-shot of mature Guinea-Congo forest, but the general picture is one of secondary forest and ‘bush’ with few large trees. Being isolated and no longer bound together by lianas, such trees are prone to storm damage, setting back forest regeneration. Though village sites were abandoned 45 years ago they remained devoid of trees as tree seedlings could not establish in dense bush. The trees that were planted on dump sites gave mixed results; some failed to thrive, perhaps because they are sensitive to certain contaminants, while others like
Despite the general degradation, over four decades of protection have ensured the survival of a great diversity of plants and animals. Loss of surrounding forests during this period adds to the importance of this refuge for numerous species that are becoming scarce in south-western Nigeria. It has become a stronghold for several taxa that have been assessed by the IUCN as of priority for conservation. There are also mature rainforest trees outside forest areas, particularly iroko (
Currently, the checklist of flora stands at 509 species, including approximately 150 species of trees. The majority of species are indigenous; but also included are some exotics that have become naturalized, including large stands of giant bamboo (
In addition to IUCN Red List species, local knowledge indicates that the following species are in steep decline:
The most spectacular plant in the forest is
The checklist of birds for Important Bird Area
The checklist of butterflies has 236 species. Of particular note is the indigenous
The provisional list of mammals includes 46 species. Eleven species of bats have been recorded to date and they are probably the most numerous mammals in forest areas; at certain times of the year when trees such as iroko and mango are fruiting, hundreds of thousands of straw-coloured fruit bats (
A preliminary survey of reptiles recorded 20 species. Observations indicate that populations are decreasing due to persistent slaughter by farm and garden staff and through more intensive use of land. There is a single record of green mamba (
In 1970 villagers were relocated but allowed continued access for the purposes of collecting firewood, oil palm, and kola nuts until compensation was paid. Though compensation was paid many years ago, villagers are still allowed to collect materials as a goodwill gesture. From an ecological standpoint, large amounts of biomass are removed annually that could be recycled or sold to support conservation of the forest. In terms of relationships, the arrangement perpetuates an attitude that local people have rights to exploit resources within the campus, especially as these resources–bush-meat, timber, wild fruits and vegetables, and medicinal plants–are now in extreme short-supply in surrounding areas and can provide the basis for commercial enterprises rather than for domestic consumption.
Until recently gunshots could be heard at any time of the day and night and little could be done by unarmed Forest Project staff against armed poachers. Forest Rangers are now employed by the Security Unit with powers to arrest poachers and hand-over to police for prosecution. Theft of plants/plant parts, fuel wood etc. is treated more leniently with a warning and on-the-spot education.
Protection of the forest arguably owes more to the high level of campus security than to its perceived importance for conservation. There is, however, no doubt about its value to
To protect a forest on the campus of an international institute that is dedicated to agricultural research yet surrounded by comparatively poor people who want to profit from this forest is a challenge. Public relations at local, state and federal level, and a better understanding of the importance of such a refuge of biodiversity among campus residents, staff (including low-literate employees, such as casual workers) and visitors, will be crucial for its survival. Protection of the forest and campus as a Science Park in perpetuity is also vital to ward off interest by developers. In addition to conservation of biodiversity, the new
In Dodja, huge (30–40 m high) trees of
As a result of the long-lasting effort in introducing plantlets and seeds from other forests of the region the list of plants registered on this land now comprises over 600 species including 200 species of trees. The forest has become a sanctuary for rare rainforest species, some from unique and unprotected stands in Benin. A total of 50 threatened species (out of the Red List Benin total of 100 in these categories) are found in Drabo i.e., 15
The forest harbours some rare insects, among them
The Drabo forest has a rich bird fauna, which also includes rainforest species, the most spectacular being Narina’s trogon (
Among the mammals, three species of squirrels, among them
In the beginning, the local population was allowed to use the forest for gathering fuel wood and medicinal plants. This was, however, not a sustainable solution as every first finder of a medicinal plant would uproot and destroy it completely. Similarly, trees were being prepared by trespassers through ringing so that they would topple and offer fuel wood. Around the village, small mammals were, and still are, severely hunted and some newcomers from Cotonou made it known that they would only eat animals they shot themselves. In view of the small size of the forest, it was therefore agreed that all hunting, felling of trees, gathering of fuel wood and medicinal plants would only be allowed in the presence and with the accord of the owner. This agreement, though violated occasionally, was generally respected.
Then, in an incident that demonstrated the possible negative effects of local beliefs, over 60 trees were felled because a seer (
This deal was only possible because the first author had been introduced into the local cults of the
At present, trespassers are mainly reported by casual observation rather than by actively posting guards. However, if somebody is caught felling trees or cutting bark and lianas fines imposed by the council of elders are substantial (in the order of $100-$200, paid in kind). While villagers severely punish crop damage by roaming pigs or goats to maize or other crops, no sanction is possible when these animals sometimes penetrate the forest.
In Drabo, roads are bad and are mostly maintained by the villagers themselves. Electricity has only recently been brought to a neighbouring village, from where haphazard private lines now extend over 1 km to the sanctuary. All water comes from private wells, which provide abundant water of the best quality. All villagers (except PN) survive below the internationally accepted minimum daily income of $1 or $2 per person per day. Income sources are highly varied but all are derived in part from subsistence farming. Most farmers in Drabo have sold land to Beninois who live in Cotonou and eventually intend to build a modest house on it. Meanwhile, this land is continuously farmed by the previous owners with little respect to soil conserving measures, such as fallow and crop rotation. Most villagers are part-time artisans and quite a few are motorbike taxi drivers working in the nearby town of Calavi, while the majority of women work at home. Nobody suffers from chronic hunger, though diets are simple. Why then would such poor people respect the forest?
The villagers sometimes approach the first author for help to pay school fees, medical bills, or apprenticeships, etc. Few people in the village outside the small circle of immediate friends would tolerate the forest if it were not for this assistance. Benefits like more abundant and more regular rains, refuge for organisms beneficial in agriculture, refuge for medicinal plants and game, etc., are regularly explained to the villagers, but traditional viewpoints persist, i.e., land is there to be farmed. As the village is being encroached upon by the expanding town of Calavi, some villages like Drabo Fanto and Dodja already sold their traditional sacred forests. The recent creation of a small ethno-botanical garden for useful plants accessible on demand and the negative experiences of neighbouring villages where all old trees had been cut are, however, starting to swing the opinion in the younger men, provided the financial support is maintained.
Most villagers had never seen a live monkey before the red-bellied monkeys of the sanctuary started reproducing and interacting with the population, particularly with children. Local people now take a certain pride at having these monkeys as a speciality of the village. Damage mostly by the associated green monkeys, which are much more aggressive crop raiders than the red-bellies, must, however, be compensated for.
Apart from being a prime site for ecological research, the sanctuary is also an important site for nature protection in a region where natural forests are mostly unprotected. As a consequence, a mild ecotourism has developed thanks to the web-site posting of the forest by NGOs active in ecotourism (
Regular visits by university students and schools also create interest and provide evidence that perhaps, in the future, this sanctuary could be beneficial to the surrounding population. Many of the taxonomists, who visit the famous insect collection of
In view of the many threats to sustainability,
The forest contains old trees of a rare beauty. The main species are huge
Despite its small size, the forest harbours green monkeys (
Recently,
Involvement in the Forêt de la Panthère by CREDI-ONG started when the deities were removed and the forest became desacralized. This allowed a first visit by the managers of this NGO, who were duly enchanted by this ancient forest. The owners, on the other hand, wanted to cut the trees for sale. CREDI-ONG succeeded in convincing them to preserve the forest and to exploit it in the framework of eco-touristic activities.
From 2008 onward, CREDI-ONG paid $100 per year to the owner family in order to have free access to the forest with its visitors. In 2012, savage tree cutting in the understory forest was observed. The family and village collectives decided to re-sacralise the forest by handing it over to the
The village of Kpotomey today has electricity, running water, is linked with good roads to nearby Zinvié, where medicinal facilities and schools are available. At present, CREDI-ONG has an annual income by visitors to the forest representing 28 person-days, which is used to employ villagers as assistants and tour guides. Group and social activities abound and the trainees from collaborating NGOs in Europe and local schoolchildren are taught the importance of sustainable nature conservation.
Since several externally funded projects of CREDI-ONG are strictly community-oriented and offer better lives to numerous people this model of nature conservation has a good chance of surviving increased population pressure. At present, the reserve is being expanded along the Sô River, with the plan to make the ‘Sitatunga Valley’ a new national park with benefits for adjacent communities through ecotourism and merchandising of local foods and crafts.
The forest has never been seriously degraded. Throughout it has a relatively low, but dense 10–15 m high canopy. A total of 139 species of plants has been identified, but the final list is probably considerably longer.
The fauna has never been studied in depth as the villagers keep the forest closed most of the year. Civet cats (
The Bahazoun forest is privately owned and not protected by any legal document. The local administration in Abomey-Calavi does not seem to be aware of its presence and the forest is not listed in the official Community Development Plan.
Management of the Bahazoun forest is entirely in the hands of the family, who are fiercely opposed to any interference by the forest administration. Access is strictly controlled by the inhabitants of Lanzron, who view any person showing interest in the fauna and flora with suspicion because they fear to be dispossessed of their forest. Only a small portion is dedicated to
CREDI-ONG is allowed to perform certain activities such as ornithological visits in the vicinity of the forest, always accompanied by somebody from Lanzron. So far, not all team members have been initiated into the vodoun cult.
The villagers of Lanzron are generally poor subsistence farmers without access to electricity. Roads are extremely bad and access to medical services is at a considerable distance. The forest plays an important role in their daily lives, providing medicinal plants, firewood, timber for construction, and income through hunting.
Since the villagers are proud of their forest the perspectives for its survival are good, provided some action is taken. The first requirement is a legally binding written management plan with safe title deeds; otherwise the land-grabbing observed in other parts of the Calavi community and the installation of big farms by rich absentee landlords will destroy this old management through elders. At present, CREDI-ONG is helping to improve prospects by providing water pumps, employment for rangers, and training according to the principles they developed in their fief in Zinvié.
Despite a low ecological footprint until recently (
Though all four forests are under practically identical climatic conditions, underlying bedrock and soil influence species composition and resistance of the forests against storms and dry spells. Because biodiversity inventories are still local and rare, documented species richness is mainly dependent on how well these forests have been studied; Ibadan has the longest records and the highest number of visiting specialists, while Lanzron is mostly inaccessible to visitors.
For the preservation of biodiversity, nature reserves with expensive security measures like
Benin and Nigeria have big parks in the thinly populated North: the Complex WAP World Heritage Centre of the UNESCO, i.e. three contiguous parks, namely Parc W in Niger, Arly in Burkina Faso, Parc Penjari in Benin of about 10 000 km2 constitute the largest fully protected area in tropical West Africa. In southern Benin and south-western Nigeria, national parks are, however, almost totally absent. Protecting and restoring small refuges, as in the case of the four forests, is therefore justified and important.
Management and interactions with the populations living in the vicinity of these forests is deeply influenced by the accessibility to towns:
Surrounding populations are differently integrated in the management of the forests. In Drabo, the manager/owner of the forest lives in the forest and his integration into the local cults assures protection in an arrangement called ‘working with people’ (
Engaging with traditional beliefs in Drabo has up to now protected the forest, where monkeys and duikers abound despite their value on the market. Yet, Christian revelation churches have been successful in fiercely opposing traditional beliefs. By contrast, the Catholic Church has adopted and adapted these traditions. The managers from Zinvié have stimulated the village associations to re-sacralise their forest in order to add some measure of protection. It must, however, be remembered that sacred forests have not been created for the purpose of nature conservation and that their sacred status alone is often insufficient to protect them from destruction (Siebert 2003,
While the government of Benin has signed all relevant international treaties and the laws to protect the forests are in place (
The presence of flagship species such as the red-bellied monkey, sitatunga, or
The following major recommendations for other conservation efforts in the region can be extracted: a) Ownership of the forest must be vigorously defended against other interests from outside, but also from inside the local community, by clearly defining, within a well-defined managerial and political structure, purpose, rights and obligations. Ownership must include not only the plot, but also the trees growing on it. Managing forests for somebody else, by contrast, is not likely to be sustainable; b) Support to the community is needed by creating interest in the reserve, but only as long as established rules are respected; c) Such support should be accompanied by education at all levels, a recommendation that probably also applies to big reserves established and maintained by governments; d- In theory, these conclusions are all not new, but implementation needs champions and funding. Where these are lacking, reserves risk existing only on paper as is the case for many Forêts Classées in central and northern Benin or the Gambari Forest Reserve in Nigeria. At least in the case of Benin, which is still among the 20 poorest nations of the world despite efforts of successive democratic governments, outside funding and further education are probably the only means to assure protection of its biodiversity.
We thank the Leventis Foundation for funding two forest projects at