Corresponding author: Neil D’Cruze (
Academic editor: Klaus Henle
We report on illegal international trade in Indian Star Tortoises ( Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
D’Cruze N, Singh B, Morrison T, Schmidt-Burbach J, Macdonald DW, Mookerjee A (2015) A star attraction: The illegal trade in Indian Star Tortoises. Nature Conservation 13: 1–19. doi:
The illegal trade in wildlife is a big and burgeoning business, with global profits estimated to be worth between $8 – $10 billion US dollars each year (
A substantial component of illegal wildlife trade comprises reptiles and their derivatives or products (
The illegal trade in
Of ongoing and increasing concern from an international illegal wildlife trade perspective (
The Indian Star Tortoise was last formally assessed in 2000 and is officially considered as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List as it was not thought to be threatened with extinction in any of its range countries (which include India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka (
Despite this legal protection, according to Chng’s study ( Wild Animal Reservation and Protection Act
Despite increasing concern regarding the illegal international trade in this species, there is a lack of current specific information regarding the number of Indian Star Tortoises obtained via illegal methods, where the traded animals originate from, and the sourcing strategies used to supply them (e.g.
Given that the trade in this species was last assessed more than 10 years ago, we conducted fieldwork in India over a 17 month period in order to address the following questions: (1) Where are the current main centres of poaching activity in India? (2) How many tortoises are being (illegally) poached from India each year? (3) What methods are criminal actors using to conduct this illegal trade activity? (4) What are the intended destinations for animals poached from India? We hope that the information gathered will help to guide existing efforts to both preserve remaining wild populations and safeguard the welfare of individual Indian Star Tortoises.
To help focus our efforts we collected records of illegal trade from the scientific and grey literature. This semi-systematic review identified the historical occurrence of the illegal trade in 11 (38%) of the 29 states and in one (14%) of the 7 union territory capitals in India over the last 20 years (Figure
Indian states with documented illegal Indian Star Tortoise trade activity (provided in the existing scientific literature) and the current known geographic distribution of this species within India.
We identified the thorn scrub forests located where the borders of the southern Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu states meet as being historically associated with the sourcing of wild Indian Star Tortoises (
In Gujarat we focussed our efforts on 16 rural villages and two urban towns surrounding the city of Ahmedabad (referred to hereafter as the ‘Gujarat trade hub’) (Figure
The current domestic and international illegal export trade routes for the Indian Star Tortoise, involving various transport methods (according to this study’s fieldwork).
Regulated trade mechanisms can also act as a ‘cover’ for and facilitate the illegal trade in wild animals (e.g. via false paper work) (
With regards to vendors, researchers did not observe any Indian Star Tortoises on open display in this trade hub. However, we found individuals available for purchase upon specific request at the popular ‘Dilli Chakla’ market in Ahmedabad with seven Indian Star Tortoises (six juveniles and one adult, all in visibly poor health) privately shown to researchers by two vendors during two visits over this period (Figure
Indian Star Tortoise ‘chain of custody’ demonstrating the various illegal trade actors and reported market value of individual animals involved in illicit trade activity originating from within India. Tortoise value refers to the maximum observed price (in US dollars) paid to the traders operating at each respective level.
With regards to domestic consumers, despite their legal protection, Indian Star Tortoises are still being openly kept as pets in Gujarat (Figure
In addition, Indian Star Tortoises are still being openly kept at religious temples for spiritual purposes (Figure
Previous reports (e.g.
Unlike Gujarat, in Andhra Pradesh we encountered an organized, large-scale operation engaged in the illegal sourcing of wild Indian Star Tortoises for international consumers (Figure
The number of Indian Star Tortoises extracted from one hub ‘Madanapalli’ in Andhra Pradesh (India) throughout 2014, as observed by this study’s field research.
Between 100 and 150 juvenile tortoises are typically gathered at one time over a period of approximately one week with primary collectors receiving between 50 and 300 Indian Rupees (INR) (1 and 5 USD) per animal from secondary level urban (‘middle men’) traders depending on the size and health of the animal (Figure
According to collectors, these tortoises are transported within India to several main traders either by road or by rail (Figure
A: Rural Girlol community collector with wildlife snares; B, C and D; Rural community traders with illegally sourced Indian Star Tortoises (destined for international markets) near Madanapalle, Andhra Pradesh, India.
Map to show legal international trade routes for Indian Star Tortoises imported into and exported out from Thailand between 2004 and 2013 (according to
The direct involvement of collectors ends at this point. However, communication with Thai enforcement officials confirmed that cargo boats in Kolkata are used to transport tortoises to other Asian countries including Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand (Figure
Excluding seizure records,
After analysing the
After analysing the
The number of Indian Star Tortoises legally imported into Thailand between 2004 and 2013 according to
We observed that the majority of import trade transactions into Thailand (43%;
Between 2004 and 2008 we observed a total of 540 live tortoises exported from Thailand, via ten trade transactions (Figure
The number of Indian Star Tortoises legally exported out of Thailand between 2004 and 2013 according to
We observed that the majority of export trade transactions went to Hong Kong (30%;
The Indian Star Tortoise was last formally assessed for the IUCN Red List fifteen years ago when it was classified as Lower Risk/Least Concern. However, its conservation status is already acknowledged to be in urgent need of updating (
We report on the illegal wild removal of at least 55,000 Indian Star Tortoises from just one trade hub in India over a period of one year. This Figure is (three to six times) larger than the 10,000–20,000 individuals previously estimated to be poached throughout the entire range of this species each year (
This illegal trade also represents an on-going animal welfare threat (
Previous studies have raised concerns that Indian Star Tortoises are being smuggled from India into pet markets in Asia, Europe and the United States (e.g.
Ownership of Indian Star Tortoises is likely to have been a long held cultural practice in India (
Unfortunately, our findings did confirm that the commercial trade in this species has evolved into an international organised criminal operation in other parts of the country (e.g. the Andhra Pradesh trade hub). This type of illegal activity involves a wide range of actors ranging from the rural poor to wealthy urban entrepreneurs (
Our analysis of
India’s Wildlife Protection Act prohibits both trade and private ownership of this species. However, legal domestic trade in other Asian countries appears to be undermining India’s efforts to protect this species (
With regards to consumers, our study reveals that within India some demand undoubtedly persists for subsistence purposes among members of the rural poor (i.e. as a source of protein). However, on wider assessment, wealth also appears to be an equally strong (if not stronger) driver as domestic demand also extends to ‘luxury’ use as exotic pets and spiritual purposes. Similarly, although more research is required, international demand for this species throughout South East Asia (particularly Thailand and China) also appears to be driven by demand for use as exotic pets stimulated by increasing affluence across this region (
Given the scale of the illegal trade in Indian Star Tortoises uncovered during our study, we recommend that more detailed research should be carried out in order to establish the impact that this unregulated activity is having on wild populations. This information will be required in order to make a fully informed updated formal assessment of the IUCN Red List status of this species. However, while this information is being collected, we suggest that assessors use existing information to inform whether a precautionary approach to the listing of the Indian Star Tortoise is required to help safeguard its survival.
Working together, national enforcement agencies can detect and disrupt the trafficking of wildlife by organised criminal groups, for example by documenting illegal business activities and identifying laws that have been broken in each other’s jurisdictions (
The legal trade in other Asian countries also appears to be undermining India’s efforts to protect the Indian Star Tortoise. As such, we support existing calls (e.g.
It is important to note, wildlife laws and enforcement efforts stand little chance of success unless consumer demand for protected wildlife is also addressed (
Evidence suggests that a multifaceted approach can be successful in reducing illegal trade in Indian Star Tortoises. For example, a recent market survey has indicated a dramatic drop in the number of Indian Star Tortoises in Malaysian shops over the last 10 years as a direct result of new wildlife legislation, increased enforcement effort and targeted public awareness initiatives (
We thank BC Choudhary, Margaret Balaskas, Kate Nustedt, Simon Pope, Gajender Sharma, Emily Reeves, Lyndall Stein, and Peter Paul van Dijk for their invaluable comments and insights during this research project. Many thanks to the Investigation and Intelligence Team at World Animal Protection, and anonymous contributors, who provided confidential information in support of this research. Special thanks go to Steve McIvor for supporting this project. This research project was fully funded by World Animal Protection.
Table S1. Table of the Indian Star Tortoise trade transactions (1975–2013)
trade transactions data
Table to show the Indian Star Tortoise trade transactions (1975-2013) as recorded by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora World Conservation Monitoring Centre (