The study area is the Combeima river basin, which is located in the city of Ibagué, in the Department of Tolima (Colombia), between the coordinates 04°19'30’’–04°39'57"N, 75°10'11’’–75°23'23"W, on the eastern flank of the central mountain range of the Andes in Colombia and is made up of three districts: Cay, Villa Restrepo and Juntas, which is home to more than 25 hamlets, its climate can vary significantly due to its altitude, which ranges between 1400 and 4200 m.a.s.l., with an area of 27,421 ha and a length of 57.7 km, the average annual rainfall is 1816 mm and the average temperature is 17 °C. There are intertwined mountains that house water tributaries with waterfalls, tropical forests, humid forests, Andean forests and even the important paramos. With biophysical conditions and its tourist appropriation, it is configured as a potential area for the development of nature tourism in the city of Ibague and the department of Tolima (Fig. 1) (CORTOLIMA 2019).

Figure 1.

Location of the Combeima basin. Source. Agustín Codazzi Geographic Institute, P.O.T.

The five groups of protected areas of the Combeima Canyon are located in the districts of Juntas (3,486.01 ha) and Villa Restrepo (2,300.58 ha), North Hills of Ibague (9,130.5 ha), and the Civil Society Nature Reserve (184.2 ha), for a total of 15,101.29 ha. (Fig. 1). The study sites were selected to evaluate a variety of conditions that affect the type, severity, assessment, and management of visitor-generated impacts (CORTOLIMA 2019).

The DPSIR (Drivers, Pressures, State, Impacts and Responses) model is a management tool that recognizes and examines the origin and consequences of environmental problems and can improve decision-making by stakeholders and government (Kelble et al. 2013). It consists of five parameters: Driving Forces, Pressures, State, Impacts, and Responses (Ehara et al. 2018). Drivers (D: Driving) include social, demographic and economic growth activities that generate pressures on ecosystems. Pressures (P: Pressure) are human-dependent activities or processes that have the potential for adverse effects (Impacts); State (S: State) refers to changes in ecological integrity, including alterations in the physical, biological and chemical conditions in a specific area. Impacts (I: Impacts) refer only to human welfare (socioeconomic system); and the responses (R) refer to political actions and programs led by institutions, community and government (Müller and Burkhard 2012; Pinto et al. 2013; Elliott et al. 2017).

The Combeima basin is a vital ecosystem facing significant challenges such as deforestation and mining pollution. To effectively address these problems, it is essential to apply the DPSIR methodology (Drivers, Pressures, State, Impact, and Response), which helps to understand the interactions between human activities and the environment. However, it is crucial to broaden this analysis by placing greater emphasis on private sector responses, alongside government actions, in order to improve long-term sustainability in the region.

Drivers in the Combeima basin include economic, social, and demographic factors that encourage the use of natural resources. Economic growth and demand for agricultural and mineral products are key drivers. Here, the private sector can play a crucial role by adopting more sustainable practices. For example, agricultural companies can implement sustainable farming techniques that reduce pressure on natural resources, while mining companies can explore less invasive alternatives.

Private sector pressures, such as intensive agriculture and mining, significantly influence the environment. These pressures translate into ecosystem degradation, water pollution, and biodiversity loss. Companies can mitigate these pressures by adopting clean technologies and environmental management practices. For example, implementing environmental management systems (EMS) can help companies identify and reduce their environmental impact.

The state of the environment in the Combeima basin is affected by pollution and deforestation. Businesses can contribute to improving this state by investing in ecological restoration and water resource conservation projects. Collaboration with non-governmental organizations and local communities to implement reforestation initiatives can be an effective way to restore damaged ecosystems and improve water quality.

The impacts of economic activities are significant and can affect the health of ecosystems and local communities. Companies have a responsibility to assess and mitigate these impacts through corporate social responsibility (CSR). This includes not only reducing pollution but also supporting local communities through sustainable development programs that promote social and economic well-being.

The answer is where the private sector can make a significant difference. Companies can collaborate with governments and non-governmental organizations to develop initiatives that promote sustainability. This can include creating partnerships for resource management, implementing sustainability certifications, and promoting circular economy practices. Furthermore, education and awareness about the importance of sustainability can be an integral part of business strategy.

In conclusion, by integrating private sector responses into the DPSIR analysis, a more holistic and collaborative approach to sustainability in the Combeima basin can be fostered. Collaboration between the private sector, government, and local communities will not only benefit the environment but also generate economic opportunities and improve the quality of life for people in the region. Long-term sustainability in the Combeima basin depends on a joint commitment to protecting and managing natural resources responsibly.

To measure the effectiveness of the responses proposed within this framework, several indicators and metrics can be used, examples of which are:

• Concentration of pollutants in specific bodies of water.
• The rate of respiratory illnesses in a population exposed to air pollution could decrease following the implementation of emission reduction policies.
• If a recycling program is implemented, the amount of recycled waste could be measured against the total waste generated.
• In participation metrics to assess social response, surveys can be used to measure community awareness and participation in environmental initiatives. For example, the percentage of the population participating in public space cleanup programs.

These indicators and metrics not only help measure the effectiveness of responses but also allow strategies to be adjusted based on the results obtained.

Natural reserves face many different threats, including biodiversity loss due to habitat degradation and fragmentation, overexploitation of resources (Rodriguez and Leiton 2021), invasive species (Musarella et al. 2024), climate change (Price et al. 2024), and pollution (Groom et al. 2006). The assessment of these threats is usually carried out using indicators that can be taken from different sources, including bibliographic reports, field monitoring, and technologies related to remote sensing (Beresford et al. 2020). The authors used the DPSIR causal network model which was based on the drivers and pressures identified in the Combeima basin from primary data in the context of this work. Information was obtained from the literature: scientific articles, reports and other types of published materials, surveys, as done other authors (Wang et al. 2015; Gari et al. 2018). Once they were collected, a DSPIR model was built as previously described (Lin et al. 2007; De Stefano 2010; Lu et al. 2019). For the Combeima basin, data related to environmental impacts were obtained, including land use, vegetation, rivers, wildlife, parks, and nature reserves, as well as socioeconomic data, agriculture, wildlife, and tourism activities. The impacts described here include those that affect human populations and their well-being. This work used the methods already adopted by the Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt de Colombia (IAvH) (Mesa et al. 2016) for the assessment of threats in ecosystems.

This approach assesses threats that could lead to alterations of three essential components of the system: 1. Ecological status of aquatic ecosystems; 2. Ecological status of terrestrial habitats; and 3. Biodiversity loss (Barriga and Portocarrero 2016). Variables classified as threatened are categorized between 0 and 3, and if not present, the value is (0), low (1), medium (2), and high (3). These categories were given by IAVH experts. Once the scores were assigned to the study area, based on the pressure and impact drivers identified in the first DPSIR framework, the calculations of the total threat values (CTTV) of the three components were performed as described in expression:

CTTV = (Σ threat (1) × 0.35) + (Σ threats (2) × 0.35) + (Σ threats (3) × 0.30) (1)

The identified threats were assessed using two approaches, providing relevant data to characterize the environmental state and current system functions.

The results obtained from the evaluation through the DPSIR framework for the Combeima basin are shown in greater detail and by categories the five components of the framework such as the drivers, pressures, state, impacts and responses identified in the causal network model developed for the study area of the Combeima basin are shown in the Fig. 2 and Table 1.

Figure 2.

Graph of DPSIR framework results and hazard perception in the Combeima basin. Source author.

The following analysis through the DPSIR framework shows that the critical pressures in the region include visitor and vehicular pressures, changes in animal behavior, tour package offerings, development of facilities and services for visitors, tourists increase, sustenance mining, deforestation, inadequate or excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers in agro-ecosystems, chemical and microbiological contamination, trips to tourist sites, lack of road management, trips implementation, “pot walks”, forest fires, erosion. The main drivers also involve souvenirs, climatic risks, a force that influences human impact in the Combeima basin (Table 1).

The factors mentioned have generated a decrease in ecosystem services, a decrease in water flows, a reduction in biodiversity, loss of territory, reduction of forests, generating problems in the protected areas of the Combeima basin, compromising the social part of the region such as food and water security, health problems, displacement of territory, loss of autonomy, traditional knowledge among others (Table 1).

The main responses from the departmental and local government correspond to the legal branch, through the different existing laws (Table 2).

The following paper describes four public policy instruments that encourage tourist management for the Combeima basin, where territorial planning and actions for sustainable administration lineaments are given. Furthermore, the articulation of environmental and territorial instruments in the area are required for the systematic operation of the territory and the contribution to solving conflicts due to the overlapping uses for the environmental preservation and restoration on the intrinsic use of the local community in soil management, hydraulic resources and ecosystemic services (Table 2).

It also presented the control of tourist activity in the area through the establishment of registration points, access control and/or verification of technical requirements to visitors entering in conservation and motorized patrolling areas in public spaces, especially on the road. Table 3, presents the principal tourist control mechanisms in the area:

In the Combeima basin of Ibague, current public policies focus on several strategies to mitigate the negative impacts of deforestation and mining pollution.

On one hand, reforestation and natural area conservation programs are being implemented, aiming to restore damaged ecosystems and promote biodiversity. Awareness campaigns are also being conducted to educate the community on the importance of protecting the environment and natural resources (CORTOLIMA 2018).

Regarding mining, stricter regulations are being established for mining activities to minimize water and soil contamination. This includes requirements for environmental impact studies and constant monitoring of mining operations. Only small-scale subsistence miners are allowed to extract materials such as sand, stone, slate, and gold through artisanal methods, under the supervision of CORTOLIMA, the Tolima Governor’s Office, and the Ibague Mayor’s Office (Mayor’s Office of Ibagué 2016). In 2007, Decree 1480 was issued, prioritizing the planning and intervention of the Combeima basin due to its high environmental contribution to the municipality of Ibague (Fandiño et al. 2018).

A new land use associated with urbanization and tourism has emerged, aligned with the concept of multifunctional rural services, one of which is recreation and enjoyment of the landscape (Schroeder and Formiga 2012). This activity has become highly relevant in the Combeima River Canyon due to its strategic location and scenic beauty (Fandiño et al. 2018).

The results indicate the need to prioritize rigorous governmental measures for the conservation of the Combeima basin reserve, particularly from sustainable development approaches that effectively involve local communities and their traditional ecological knowledge. This is essential to ensure the well-being of current and future generations and to prevent the loss of biodiversity in this globally unique ecosystem.

The DPSIR assessment of threats to protected areas in the Combeima watershed revealed that of sixteen threats, six had a high score, nine had a medium score and one had a low score. The most significant threats to aquatic ecosystems are subsistence mining activities and biodiversity loss due to deforestation. Other threats include pesticide use, soil erosion, livestock farming, and unsustainable tourism, which require urgent attention (Table 4).

On the other hand, the discharge of contaminated water into rivers and streams by tourists generates high levels of contamination for water for consumption and domestic use, just as the garbage and plastics that are thrown into protected reserve areas create an impact that must be taken into account (Table 4).

The Combeima basin, located in Ibague, Tolima, is an area rich in biodiversity and culture, making it an ideal location for ecotourism. Local communities play a fundamental role in ecotourism initiatives in this region.

The community and business organizations in the Combeima basin area mainly consist of rural community action boards (27), local agricultural producers’ associations (15), tourism service providers (1), and non-governmental organizations (4) (Mayor’s Office of Ibagué 2016). These organizations are characterized by an incipient organizational capacity and weak productive and social integration, which has affected the comprehensive management of territorial development and the intervention in socio-environmental issues.

Regarding solid waste in the Combeima basin, before Holy Week, 388.3 kg of waste were collected during the awareness and cleanup campaign in the Los Nevados National Natural Park (southern sector) in March 2017, and 250 kg were collected in February 2018. Common types of waste included plastics, tents, camping mattresses, clothing and footwear, packaging, and containers made of plastic, metal, and glass, as well as sanitary waste. Additionally, the disposal of up to 400 kg of waste by visitors in the protected environmental area during the low season and up to 25 m³ of waste in the area influenced by the road axis in the section between the villages of Juntas and Villa Restrepo has been recorded (CORTOLIMA 2018).

Regarding wastewater discharges, microbiological contamination in the Combeima basin from wastewater discharges during the period 2008–2012 and 2014 did not comply with the acceptable limits for total coliforms (1000 MPN) and fecal coliforms (200 MPN) for recreational use, as established by Decree 1594 of the Ministry of Agriculture. This implies a health risk for visitors and a critical impact on the water quality for human consumption for both the local community and the urban population (Ospina 2015).

On weekends and holidays, access and mobility, without physical or technical restrictions, result in road congestion in the area due to the saturation of its carrying capacity and obstruction caused by parked vehicles. This leads to air pollution, noise pollution, and an increased risk of accidents. It was determined that at least 1863 means of transportation circulate on Sundays, with the following distribution: 100 public collective motorized vehicles, including Buses (64%), Jeeps (24%), and Taxis (12%); 1042 private motorized vehicles, including Cars (59%) and Motorcycles (41%); and 721 individual non-motorized means of transportation, including Bicycles (97%) and Walking (3%), with numbers increasing during vacation periods and holidays (Mayor’s Office of Ibagué 2016).

In conclusion, local communities in the Combeima basin benefit from ecotourism through job creation, support for local businesses, and the promotion of environmental conservation and local culture. On the other hand, it can also present challenges, such as the overuse of natural resources, changes in cultural traditions, and the need to sustainably manage tourist flows.

In different periods, the Combeima basin has experienced significant changes in the environmental threats associated with tourism activity, as shown in Table 5.

This table summarizes the environmental threats and their impacts on the Combeima basin over different periods, highlighting the evolving situation and the need for a sustainable approach to tourism.

It was found that most vehicles and visitors are located in the zone of influence of protected areas nearing the Combeima basin, causing a quantitative rating according to the DPSIR model for medium in grade 2, which rates it as tourist pressure that doesn’t generate any impact, which requires larger control from state entities (Tabla 4). A different study at Teide National Park (Tenerife) analyzed the flow of visitors and vehicles to identify the causes of a possible sensation that tourism was excessive. This serves as a manifestation of the pressing need for measures that protect the conditions of the National Park to preserve not only the space, but the environment, the population, companies and visitors with measures that can be implemented in management (Fernandez 2022). In another research, the impact of the number of visits the Cruz del Carmen area from Anaga Rural Park in Tenerife was exposed. This established a series of measures that mitigate the current congestion of vehicles and visitors in zones deemed inadequate, prohibited even, and as such, serves as an example to other protection figures at Tenerife Island. Tourism has been rising exponentially since 2006 through 2020, which brings an increase in the massification of the place of analysis. (Marrero 2021). Caviedes and Olaya, in their article, describe the conditions in which ecotourism currently develops and the requirements for its sustainability. It presents the different environmental, sociocultural and economic impacts generated by ecotourism and identified–under the assessment of a group of representatives, experts of different tourism-related entities and protected areas as well as certificates of tourist quality and environmental sustainability granted by the adoption of NTS-TS norms and the Sistema de Gestión Ambiental under norm ISO 14001-2015, which, in this industry, would influence the environments of preserved areas (Caviedes and Olaya 2018). Research was carried out in Cihuatlán, located down the southern coast of Jalisco (Mexico) through indicators of Pressure-State-Response and Pressure-State-Impact-Answer. In this research, regarding responses, the inefficient application of pre-existing laws on environmental management stood out, as well as the lack of importance placed on protecting and respecting the environment, particularly amongst local public figures (Vasquez and Garcia 2022). Another study that reinforces previous conclusions is that the impacts of visitors to a natural space cannot only be measured in physical terms but also carry a significant social component. Social load capacity refers to the sensation of exhaustion that people who visit certain places experience when being surrounded by a high level of visitors. Through a determined level of overcrowding, the experience tends to be rated as negative, independently of the scenery and natural virtues of the place they visited. This aspect must be considered in the tourist activity planning process (Blanco and Benayas 1998). On the other hand, negative impacts in ANPs could be due to overcrowding in determined seasons in which the activities performed are not controlled as they should be, by the area administration. This which could also be linked to the social load capacity; meaning, the number of individuals the ecosystem is able to tolerate in a determined period (Zelenka and Kacetl 2014).

The Combeima basin has had an important development in tourism and preservation of protected areas, considering that there are about 26 tourist sites in which visitors can perform nature-boosted tourism. Using data obtained from the assessment of threats in protected areas, it an alteration in the ecological habitat was found. This was rated as mild in the zone of influence of the Combeima basin (Table 4), as a consequence of the offering of tourism packets and the development of new facilities and services for visitors, which has had an impact on the environment due to the excessive arrival of visitors. Therefore, it is required with the utmost urgency that government institutions send visitors to other areas with different attractions and comply with the planning of soil use for the Combeima basin. In an investigation on environmental impact, it was established that for tourism, the assessment of its impact was considered, ultimately, from an economic standpoint. Nowadays, the impact of tourism is valued also in its socioeconomic and environmental variables (UNESCO 1975; Smith 1977; Murphy 1987; Pearce 1987; Mathieson and Wall 1988; Pearce and Acerenza 1988; Lozano 1990). At JADEN University in Spain, research on tourism was developed to assess indicators for the management of sustainable tourism in protected areas, where a series of measures that allowed tourism-related activity management was adopted to balance out the growing development of tourism. The goal of the paper is to establish the aims of tourism with the respective analysis and selection of indicators that meet expectations of all those interested, especially in JADEN protected areas. In conclusion, a presentation of the most relevant ideas and aspects is presented because of the making of this research (Lopez 2019). In other studies, in the last 30 years, some ideas in the tourism sector about a sustainable model have arisen as a consequence of the increase in the arrival of tourists and the intensification of domestic tourism (PNUMA and OMT 2006). A new model of environmental indicators is called DSPR, “this model includes causes of pressure (economic and demographic growth, gentrification, farming intensification.) and the impacts and consequences of state modifications in environmental conditions in the actual medium or human health” (Vera et al. 2001). Currently, the great challenge protected areas face is how to transform into sustainable landscapes. “A park can only genuinely be if all activities, including tourism, are settled on a sustainable basis” (Lew 2010).

Additionally, in the Combeima basin, pollution has occurred in protected areas due to the noise of cars, motorbikes, construction sites and air traffic, directly impacting predators and birds. According to the quantitative assessment of ecological threats in the DPSIR framework, it was categorized as medium in second degree, in which there is pollution, but no evidence (Table 4). Other works seek to notice the impact that noise pollution represents to flora and fauna in protected natural spaces, as well as the difficulty in its treatment due to its cross-cutting nature and the pre-existing regulations. To facilitate an approach to the topic, the notion of noise pollution and protected natural spaces should be delimited and solutions to this issue should be promptly proposed (Zaballos 2020). On the other hand, the rise of noise levels reduces the distance and area in which acoustic signals can be perceived by animals; therefore, reducing the sensory capacity to generate responses to that stimulus (Barber et al. 2010). As for studies on natural protected spaces, it would be relevant, besides encouraging research given the increase of tourist inflow, if there were greater citizen awareness in terms of noise pollution, so that they are conscious of the devastating consequences of this problem in the environment and increase the visibility of its impact (Buxton et al. 2017). Studies on noise pollution in schools are generating a negative impact on health, identifying solutions with adjustments to school infrastructure and environmental pedagogic strategies (Angulo et al. 2025). To corroborate the aforementioned, we have the study for the assessment of noise pollution due to automotors that circulate in National Park Braulio Carrillo in Costa Rica. Results indicate that the presence of noise from traffic is a polluting agent in the protected area (Campos 2022).

High pollution by solid waste such as plastics, styrofoam, garbage, glass, food waste, fruit and vegetable peels, cans, and others also impact the environment, and through quantitative assessment of the DPSIR model employed in the research project showed a medium rating, where solid waste are found in the zone of influence (Tabla 4). To deal with it, it has been registered waste disposal up to 400 kg from visitors in low season, and up to 25 m³ of waste on the road connecting Juntas and Villa Restrepo (CORTOLIMA 2016).

Below are the leading causes of waste pollution in the area:

• Lack of knowledge of responsible consumption practices and waste management by the local community and visitors.
• Weak capacity for waste organization and management, mainly in the separation of waste at source and its use.
• Lack of equipment and signage for the collection, storage, use, and transfer of waste.
• Weak institutional capacity to promote and monitor compliance with environ-mental and tourism sustainability requirements in the purchase, consumption, and management of waste products and materials in tourism activities.

Other research projects have found problems in solid waste disposal generated by adventure-boosted tourism at Huascarán National Park, which has been analysed by Huamaní (1998), which reports an average of waste in the following fashion: 48% metals (cans), 40% plastics, 6% paper and 5% glass. One of the characteristics of these wastes are their widespread disposal in roads and their relative concentration in camps, aspects that would hinder their collection (Tinoco 2003). In research at Los Venados Park in Mexico, it was identified that glass and plastics are the solid waste generated the most by tourists (Legorreta and Osorio 2011). In another research carried out at Cihuatlán in Jalisco (Mexico) through Pressure-State-Response indicators and Pressure-State-Impact-Response (FPEIR) conducting forces the inadequate the inadequate management of waste was identified as a main problem. Other pressures are related to the degradation of the ecosystems, high flux of visitors and diversity, vulnerability in the face of climate change and air pollution (Vasquez and Garcia 2022). In a study on the integrated management of solid waste and its contribution to the environmental impact on the National Protected Punta Salinas Reservoir, Huacho, it was found that the main zones destined for fishing are conformed by rocks. It was found that these areas abound with fishing and therefore there is a large flow of people, who are the generators of solid waste. Besides, in beach areas it was determined that the accumulation of waste comes from the sea due to the low flux of people. During monitoring at Guarda Islands, it was determined that each person has a per capita output of, on average, 0.4235 kg a day (Silva 2022). In additional research, it was found that the presence of inorganic waste, observed during the assessment of buffer zones, mainly plastic bags (57%), represents the highest percentage out of four months’ worth of research, while aluminum cans (11%) held the second place, and the third, plastic bottles (8%). According to this author, wastes and their decomposition in time alter these areas and are clear evidence of the impact of humankind on them (Villalobos et al. 2017).

As for the contamination of the Comebima river, through which many creeks run, it is the main river that runs through Ibague. These waters are used for consumption, sports, industry, and irrigation systems. Besides, residual waters also end up at this place, creating high pollution levels, and that, according to the quantitative assessment carried out, corresponds to a medium rating (Table 4). Studies on microbiological contamination also establish the dangers these waters pose for human consumption. As a supply source, under the classification of the quality levels, according to minimal parameters of microbiological analysis, it is considered as “highly deficient” for showing average monthly figures higher than 5000 NMP of CT (Ministry of Economic Development 2000). Studies regarding first-contact recreational use given the tourist vocation that exists within the high basin, and the microbiological contamination obtained during the time period 2008–2012, concluded that they do not comply with what is established in the Decree 1594. In this decree, regulated for this purpose the admissible values of Ctes 1000 NMP and Cf are 200 NMP (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development 1984), whose total absence of control implies a health risk in those who go to visit (Ospina 2015). To this day, the discharge of wastewater and sewage causes an environmental impact due to the pollution of hydraulic resources with the following effects: impairment of aquatic ecosystems, loss of ambiental quality and deterioration of sustainable and competitive development of the area as nature-boosted tourism, given that the discharge of wastewater in bodies of water directly causes the reduction of oxygen transfer, alteration of the pH, eutrophication and sludge deposition (ICONTEC 2009). In a study done in Panamá, the authors present an analysis of the main polluting agents in La Villa River, and their impact on water quality. Other authors identify and classify said agents into four categories: metals, chemical products, microorganism pathogens, nutrients and sediments. Besides, they analyse the impact of these polluting agents on the water quality, considering parameters such as toxicity, biodegradability, and their persistence in the environment (Arosemena et al. 2024). A different author establishes other pollutants in La Villa River, such as the discharge of industrial, domestic, and farming-related waste. The authors also propose measures to reduce pollution and improve water quality, like the implementation of wastewater treatment and the use of sustainable farming practices (Camarena et al. 2024). Another study on water quality and its relation to the renal health of inhabitants of the Panamean coast indicates how water pollution, mostly due to human activity, affects individual and collective health with heavy metals, pesticides, and high saline levels, which produces the development of chronic renal diseases and gastrointestinal illnesses. Therefore, it is paramount to implement public policies that regulate contamination, improve sanitary infrastructure and promote environmental education in these communities (Rivera et al. 2025).

The area of environmental protection of the Combeima basin presents a preserved area that stretches about 9238,39 ha (Mayor’s Office of Ibagué 2013), These areas are heavily affected by deforestation to widen terrain for farming. Furthermore, these areas are being deforested to build tourist facilities and sports areas, which has produced an assessment of ecological threats under the DPSIR framework, with a high rating, which tells us that deforestation in this area is frequent, causing a major problem due to water pollution and destabilization of the land caused by soil erosion (Tabla 4). Other studies carried out in Panamá on La Villa River establish that deforestation, as well as pollution and other factors, play an important role in the quality and availability of water in the River (Camarena et al. 2024). On the other hand, the fragmentation of forests is a grave issue, mainly responsible for deforestation and human activity, which results in the division of large forest areas into smaller, more isolated fragments. This practice entails negative consequences like the loss of biodiversity, the alteration of ecosystems and the decrease of carbon storage (Soto 2022). It is also established that fragmentation broadens the effects of the environment in forest borders, altering micro-climatic conditions and favoring the invasion of non-native species (Kanashiro et al. 2002). It is important to notice that fragmentation of forests due to human activity leads to soil erosion, loss of biomass, prevents the habitat connectivity, avoiding normal movement of wildlife and genetic flow (Caballero 2023). Livestock farming is one of the main causes of deforestation in Panamá and Santa Fé. Cutting and burning of forests for farming projects and the high-mortality rate of herbicides and insecticides used for farming contributes to the destruction of natural ecosystems (Florez and Grajales 2017; Delgado and Granada 2019). Therefore, it is necessary to promote its conservation and sustainable use through paid environmental services, sustainable forest management and rehabilitation of forests in order to improve living conditions of the population and guarantee sustainability in forest ecosystems (Cordero 2011).

On the other hand, visitors that come to the Combeima basin can enjoy about 26 natural tourist sites, such as the thermal waters of el Rancho, creeks, waterfalls, recreational places and others. According to quantitative ecological threats through the DPSIR framework, it presented a high rating in a third degree, caused impacts throughout the entire basin, polluting waters, creating environmental and sanitary risks, ecosystem degradation, fire risks, waste generation, riverbeds pollution, soil pollution, environmental deterioration, and degradation of foliage, among others (Tabla 4). It requires with urgency a deconcentration of the influx of visitors and its redistribution in the area to ensure its ecological role of buffering and provisioning hydraulic resources and ecosystemic services for Ibague. Some studies confirm the aforementioned in Easter Island, which was attributed to economic spikes, but at the same time generated irreversible environmental damage to its territory. The government focused on the growth of the island, without foreseeing the environmental impacts that would stem from it (Perez and Rodriguez 2011). On the opposite side, hydraulic pollution in Latin America and the Caribbean is dominated by local discharge from domestic or industrial origin, followed by mining. Said discharges constitute a diverse mix of substances and compounds that represent about 90%-95% of pollution that directly affects coastal areas, and it is estimated that barely 2% of these are treated (PNUMA 2000). In other studies, it was reported that rivers often concentrate polluting agents from visitors that are trapped in riverbeds, where highly sensitive ecosystems exist, which are important for species reproduction (Kramer et al. 2001). It is reported that 37% of freshwater fish species are at risk, as well as 67% of mollusks, 53% of crustaceans, 40% of amphibians and an important number of birds and vegetation (IUCN 2000). The present investigation allowed the discovery of the issue found through the coast of the Libertad region in Perú, through the assessment of sanitary quality in coastal resorts in the area. Frameworks were given for environmental management to be focused on the recovery of unhealthy resorts during 2018 and 2019, and the proposal of a framework based on sanitary quality recovery related activities in coastal resorts and the involvement of users for its preservation (Quintana and Alva 2023).

Different kinds of crops that use pesticides and pollute hydraulic sources in the Combeima basin are considered, creating changes in soil use, soil and water contamination and the decrease of biodiversity. Through the assessment of ecological threats under the DPSIR framework, a high rating in third degree was generated, which indicates that farms frequently use pesticides to fertilize and fight plagues and illnesses in their crops and livestock. Studies indicate that the farming activity is an ever-growing source of contamination (Tabla 4). It is responsible for the introduction of fertilizers, pesticides and sediments to coastal waters through rivers. The pesticide run-off leads to the contamination of superficial waters and biota, dysfunction of ecological systems due to loss of big predators due to damages and speed of growth, impacts on public health thanks to the consumption of polluted organisms, considering that pesticides can be transported like aerosols to distances as great as 1000 km from the site of application (Escobar 2002). Agricultural research corroborates what was previously said that countries generate high discharge to rivers, sources of phosphates and nitrates in quantities amassing 1.6 million of tons a year. The greater part of these come from agricultural runoffs from the American Midwest (Rodriguez and Espejel 2001). Other studies indicate that, in Costa Rica, 70% of water pollution produced for agriculture is due to coffee waste. The most contaminated riverbeds are those of Grande de Tárcoles and Grande de Térraba rivers, whose discharges also affect oceanic waters from the Gulf of Nicosia. In the Southeastern Pacific, the presence of pesticides has been associated with agricultural runoff. In Colombia, coffee-related activity generates approximately a charge of 3.7 million a year DBO (Escobar 2001). Other studies also show that agricultural pesticides also affect bees. The study took place in Colima, west of Mexico, and it has the objective of assessing the occurrence, temporal variability, spatial variability, and potential risk for bees and human consumption of honey affected by pesticides. The research considered two variables: the categorization of soil use (irrigated agriculture, rainfed agriculture, pastureland and forestry area) and location (coast, valley and mountain) (Rodriguez et al. 2024). The research on organochlorine and polychlorinated biphenyls pesticides in high mountain lakes of protected areas of the Toluca Nevado reinforced what was mentioned in this research, namely that pesticides are of high risk for health and the environment due to their cancerogenous characteristics, as well as their ability to bioaccumulate and biomagnify. Although its prohibition and control has happened for about 50 years, its presence has been revealed in different places in the world including high mountain areas, which is why it is important to assess the possible risks (Garcia 2021).

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

No ethical statement was reported.

No funding was reported.

Conceptualization J.A.H.B and G.Y.F.-Y., methodology G.Y.F.Y., software J.A.H.B. and G.Y.F.-Y., validation G.Y.F.-Y., formal analysis J.A.H.B., investigation J.A.H.B., resources J.A.H.B., data curation J.A.H.B., writing – original draft preparation J.A.H.B., writing – review and editing J.A.H.B., visualization G.Y.F.-Y., supervision G.Y.F.-Y., project administration J.A.H.B., funding acquisition J.A.H.B., All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

José Armando Huepa Briñez https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6282-1566

Gloria Yaneth Florez-Yepes https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4185-0178

All of the data that support the findings of this study are available in the main text.