The Togolese Republic, located in West Africa, is bordered by Burkina Faso in the north, Ghana in the west, Benin in the east and the Atlantic Ocean in the south. Spanning an area of 56,600 km² (Dansi et al. 2013), its human population increased more than fivefold between 1960 and 2022, with an average annual growth rate of 2.3% (INSEED 2022). The country is divided into five administrative regions from north to south: the Savanna region, Kara region, Central region, Plateaux region, and Maritime region. These regions are inhabited by 21 principal ethnic groups (Dansi et al. 2013).

Togo has two distinct climatic regions, the southern to the central regions are characterized by a subequatorial climate with two rainy seasons and two dry seasons, and the northern region with a Sudanian climate type, characterized by only two seasons - rainy and dry (Afidegnon 1999). As a consequence of its location, the Togolese landscape transitions from coastal grasslands in the south to equatorial and moist tropical forests, ending in Sudan savannas in the north (Segniagbeto et al. 2011). Within these varied ecosystems, a rich diversity of animal species thrives, as indicated by the presence of approximately 178 mammal species (Amori et al. 2016; Assou et al. 2021), 43 lizard species (Segniagbeto et al. 2015), and 91 snake species (Segniagbeto et al. 2011).

As of January 1, 2023, the minimum wage in Togo is set at 52,500 CFA Francs (89.25 USD) per month. This represents an increase from the previous minimum wage of 35,000 CFA Francs (59.5 USD), which had remained unchanged for a decade. The raise aims to enhance the purchasing power and overall working conditions of employees, addressing the challenges posed by rising living costs and inflation (https://www.minimum-wage.org/international/togo, accessed on June 25, 2024). Agriculture is one of the main sectors of the country’s national economy, producing food crops such as maize, cassava, millet, sorghum, and yam, as well as cash crops like coffee, cocoa, and cotton (Correa 2004; Sanoussi and Wonyra 2019). In rural areas, local communities primarily subsist on agriculture, livestock farming and hunting (see Sonhaye-Ouyé et al. 2022).

Lomé, the capital and largest city in Togo (Fig. 1), had an estimated population size of 2.188 million people in 2022, accounting for 27% of the country’s total population (INSEED 2022). Situated in the Maritime region, it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean in the south. The city experiences a subequatorial climate, characterized by two distinct dry seasons (December-March and August-September) and two rainy seasons (April-July and October-November). The city offers unique climatic conditions, with an average temperature of 28.5 °C, annual rainfall of 850.17 ± 242.65 mm and relative humidity exceeding 75% due to coastal influence (Togo General Directorate of National Meteorology data 2016-2022).

Figure 1.

Map of Lomé, the capital city of Togo.

Videos depicting wild meat being offered for sale online in Lomé were collated using the search function in TikTok (www.TikTok.com) in April and May 2024. The following French (Togo official language) search terms were used: “viande de brousse” (wild meat), “viande de brousse Lomé” (wild meat Lomé), “viande de brousse Togo” (wild meat Togo), “Lomé”, “TikTokTogo”. All videos posted were manually screened for relevance, without the use of automated web scrapers. Only posts openly advertising carcasses of whole wild animals for sale as wild meat were included in the dataset. Some relevant videos were posted twice on different dates; however, such videos were only considered for the first time they were posted. All videos that conformed with our inclusion criteria were downloaded and saved for further analysis.

Data were manually extracted from all videos in April and May 2024. For each video, we extracted the date the video was posted, the number of views, ‘likes’, and comments. The ‘likes’ per view ratio was calculated as the number of ‘likes’ divided by the total number of views per video, providing a measure of relative user engagement. We also viewed each video and recorded the taxonomic class and order of any animals shown and the estimated number of individuals (when possible). Additional details were recorded, including species names advertised for sale and viewer comments indicating potential purchase interest. In all cases, the seller displayed the animal carcasses and provided either the common or local name of each species. Species identification was further verified through the authors’ extensive experience assessing wildlife and wild meat trade in Togo, developed over more than a decade of field work.

All comments were analyzed manually. Although the number of posts containing comments beyond simple price or delivery inquiries was too limited (n = 517) to allow for a comprehensive sentiment analysis or detailed statistical assessment of viewer responses, these comments (excluding price and delivery inquiries) were categorized as negative (against), neutral, or positive (in favor) to wild meat trade. A Kruskal-Wallis nonparametric test was used to test for statistical differences between the categories.

We identified the animals shown in each video to the lowest taxonomic level, and where possible, to species level based on the common or local name provided and visible distinguishing features such as morphology (mainly) and color, contingent on video quality. For each unique species identified, we gathered information on their international conservation status and population trend, using the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species categories, and species information (https://www.iucnredlist.org/). We also checked whether the species was listed in the CITES appendices (https://speciesplus.net/).

Prices of wild meat provided by the traders were for whole smoked animals. Monetary values were reported in West African CFA Francs (XOF) and converted to US dollars (USD) using 1 CFA Francs = 0.0017 USD (conversion rate as of 23.05.24, xe.com). A Kruskal-Wallis test was used to test for statistical differences between the prices per whole smoked animal across species. All analyses were performed in R Statistical Programme (R Core Team 2022).

In line with ethical research practices (see Zook et al. 2017), to protect the identity of the traders, the names or URLs of the TikTok channels were not recorded. Additionally, no identifiable information, such as telephone contact or the geographic location and video setting location, is presented.

A total of 80 videos posted on two separate open-access TikTok channels located in Lomé, Togo, were analyzed. The videos had been posted on TikTok between November 2022 and April 2024. All of the videos featured a single female (estimated to be aged between 25–34 and 35–44 years old on the two different channels, respectively) advertising the sale of a range of smoked wild animals at a home setting. Specifically, the traders were advertising for costumers to place orders or to collect their orders of wild meat products. In 67 of the videos (83.75%), the trader also promotes her restaurant where she cooks wild meat “on Saturdays and Sundays”.

The number of individual smoked wild animals featured in the videos ranged from seven to 91 (median = 42) per video. An estimated total of 3,526 individual animals were featured across all 80 videos, 40.9% (n = 1,443) of which were birds, 39.6% (n = 1,395) were mammals, and 19.5% (n = 688) were reptiles (monitor lizards) (Fig. 2).

Figure 2.

Screenshots from videos posted on the TikTok accounts of two wild meat traders in Lomé, Togo.

We estimate that the wild animals featured across the 80 videos potentially refer to at least 27 different extant species within the sourcing areas in Togo (Table 1), comprising 21 species of mammals (including rodents, ungulates, small carnivores, hares, and pangolins), four species of birds (including ducks, francolin and guineafowl), and two reptile species (Savanna monitor, Varanus exanthematicus and Nile monitor, Varanus niloticus). The most frequently featured species were monitor lizards (featured in 88.8% of videos, n = 71), striped ground squirrel (Xerus erythropus, 81.3%, n = 65), helmeted guineafowl (Numida meleagris, 81.3%, n = 65), double-spurred francolin (Pternistis bicalcaratus, 75%, n = 60), ‘antelopes’ [inferred species include Buffon’s kob (Kobus kob ssp. kob), bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) and Defassa waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus ssp. defassa); 60%, n = 48], white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis, 55%, n = 44), and the greater cane rat (Thryonomys swinderianus, 51.3%, n = 41) (Fig. 3, Table 1).

Figure 3.

Species or group of species observed for sale as wild meat across 80 TikTok videos and the number of videos each species/group of species was featured in, and summary of the CITES status and IUCN Red List status of the 27 inferred species featured. EN = Endangered, VU = Vulnerable, NT = Near Threatened, LC = Least Concern, DD = Data Deficient.

With regard to their international conservation status, one of the inferred species (white-bellied pangolin) is classified on the IUCN Red List as Endangered, one is Vulnerable (Buffon’s kob), one is Near Threatened (Defassa waterbuck), 23 (85.2%) are classified as Least Concern, and one is Data Deficient (Walter’s duiker, Philantomba walteri) (Fig. 3, Table 1). With regard to their population trends, 10 inferred species (37.0%) have wild populations considered to be decreasing, nine (33.3%) have wild populations that are stable, one species has an increasing population trend, and seven (25.9%) have an unknown population trend. With regards to their status under CITES, one species (white-bellied pangolin) is listed on CITES Appendix I, three species (Savanna monitor, Nile monitor and African wildcat, Felis lybica) are listed on CITES Appendix II, and the rest of the species (n = 23, 85.2%) are not listed in CITES Appendices (Fig. 3, Table 1).

The reported sale price per whole smoked animal by traders averaged 19,502.60 CFA (32.30 USD; SD = 37,809.60) but varied between 2,000 CFA (3.30 USD) for a whole white-faced whistling duck, double-spurred francolin, and striped ground squirrel and 200,000 CFA (330.47 USD) for a whole ‘bush pig’ (inferred species include Common warthog, Phacochoerus africanus and Red River hog, Potamochoerus porcus). Prices varied depending on the species and the size of the individual animal (Fig. 4, Table 2) and there was a significant difference in the price per whole smoked specimen between species (Kruskal-Wallis chi-squared = 91.196, df = 16, p-value < 0.0001).

Figure 4.

Boxplot showing the price (USD) per whole smoked animal for the species/group of species observed in the 80 TikTok videos.

At the time of the analysis, the two channels posting the videos had 7,728 and 15,950 subscribers, respectively. The 80 individual videos had each been viewed between 660 and 216,000 times (mean ± SD = 22,438 ± 32,813; median = 9,787 views) and 50% of videos (n = 40) had been viewed over 10,000 times. All 80 videos had been viewed 1,795,079 times in total. The number of times the videos had been “liked” ranged from 26 to 8,982 (mean ± SD = 661 ± 1,270.40; median = 220.5 “likes”), with a combined total of 52,900 “likes” across all 80 videos. The ‘likes’ per view ratio ranged from one to five percent (mean ± SD = 3 ± 0.96%; median = 3%). Additionally, the videos had been “shared” a combined total of 6,162 times (range = 1–834; mean ± SD = 77 ± 142.92; median = 27) and had received a total of 3,490 comments (range = 2–710 comments per video; mean ± SD = 44 ± 96.57; median = 13).

Across all videos, 455 comments featured enquiries about where the meat could be collected from, 373 were price enquiries, 265 were people expressing that they wanted a particular product/animal, 77 were people stating that they wanted to visit the seller’s location, and 61 were delivery enquiries. Overall, 264 comments expressed positive sentiment towards the posts and were encouraging the sales (for example, “well done”, “good job”, “we should use social media to promote our business”) and 104 expressed negative sentiment towards the posts (for example, “Stop sharing this on social media”). The comments in 25 videos included requests for specific animals that were not detected in the videos analyzed in this study, and included ‘snake’, ‘viper’, ‘elephant’, ‘lion’, ‘leopard’, ‘crocodile’, ‘python’, ‘frog’, ‘aardvark’, and ‘monkey’. Six videos included comments warning against sharing the video content on social media, four included comments referring to the illegality of the trade, four included comments expressing concern for the killing of animals/destruction of wildlife, three included comments that specifically mentioned the protection status of species, and one video included comments (n = 3) about the zoonotic disease risks of the trade (Table 3). Furthermore, a comment warning a trader to avoid posting anything related to pangolins on TikTok—because it is a highly protected animal that can easily land someone in jail—received dismissive responses such as, “it would be protected in the stomach,” and “the pangolin is not protected in Togo, but in Cameroon, yes.”

Our study raises questions about the sustainability of this type of commercial trade activity in West Africa (Djagoun et al. 2018). While communities have traditionally used wildlife for centuries, globalization, human population growth, along with substantial digital and communication advances, have meant that traditional use and trade that may have once been sustainable, may not necessarily be so now or in the future (Hughes et al. 2023a). The apparent shift or increasing trend from subsistence and small-scale wildlife trade to large-scale commercial harvesting and trade that is likely targeting urban consumers, and /or broader rural communities as they gain access to social media platforms, is particularly concerning from a conservation perspective (Macdonald et al. 2021; Hughes et al. 2023a). According to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, 11% of the species featured in the posts analyzed are already considered to be threatened or Near Threatened (including the white-bellied pangolin, Buffon’s kob, and Defassa waterbuck), and many have declining (37%; 10 inferred species) or unknown (26%; 7 inferred species) wild population trends. Some of the most frequently featured species are also considered highly threatened by trade. The white-bellied pangolin, for example, which featured in 55% of the posts with 137 individuals detected, is endangered globally, predominantly due to demand for their meat and body parts for use in traditional medicine and food across Africa (Soewu and Sodeinde 2015) and Asia (e.g. Mahmood et al. 2012). Pangolins are found on sale at wildlife markets throughout West and Central Africa and pressure from hunting is reportedly increasing (Ingram et al. 2018). While there are concerns that illegal actors are increasingly sourcing wildlife from African countries for traditional medicine markets elsewhere, including China (Ingram et al. 2018), recent evidence indicates that local consumption of pangolin meat remains the main driver of hunting in West Africa, rather than international trade (Emogor et al. 2023, 2025). Clearly, any trade in pangolins via social media represents a serious conservation concern, given the vast potential reach of these platforms. For example, TikTok has more than 1.5 billion monthly active users (as of 2024, www.statista.com), and social media in general remains the most popular dedicated video-sharing application, with more than 3.6 billion users globally and over 0.83 million users in Togo alone as of 2023 (www.statista.com). This vast reach significantly amplifies the scale and visibility of wildlife trade content, which could rapidly fuel demand and accelerate species decline if not adequately addressed.

Moreover, the posts analyzed in this study appeared to be popular having been viewed nearly 1.8 million times in total with nearly 53,000 ‘likes’ (> 22,400 views and ~660 ‘likes’ per video on average). The likes per view ratio was 3% (± 0.96%), indicating consumer moderately support and demand for this online trade. The two TikTok channels had ~7,700 and 15,950 subscribers, respectively, further demonstrating the contents’ potential reach. The most popular video, which had been viewed > 216,000 times, with almost 9,000 ‘likes’ and 834 shares, openly featured smoked pangolin for sale, with the trader encouraging viewers to “choose wild meat over domestic alternatives because it is much tasty and healthier”. Although the reach of a post does not necessarily equate to influence (Silk et al. 2021), highly viewed or liked videos such as this may drive demand for wild meat or influence human behaviors (e.g. Harrington et al. 2019; Liu et al. 2020; Moorhouse et al. in press).

In our study, although some viewers appeared to be aware of the legal and conservation implications of certain species being offered for sale (e.g. pangolin), we observed that supportive comments (n = 264) were more frequent than neutral (n = 149) and negative (n = 104), suggesting that the popularity of the posts may represent a level of ‘acceptability’ of the trade and could influence social norms (Riddle and Mackay 2020; Thomas-Walters et al. 2020; Moloney et al. 2023) or behavioral intentions (e.g. Young and Jordan 2013; Moorhouse et al. in press). By liking, sharing and otherwise engaging in these posts, viewers are not only passive consumers but are also active promoters contributing to the proliferation of wildlife trade on the platform (Harrington et al. 2019). In this context, it is concerning that the two most viewed videos (with 123,000 and 216,000 views, respectively) and three of the four most popular videos (those with the highest like:view ratios) featured the endangered white-bellied pangolin.

In addition, monitor lizards (Savanna and Nile monitors) appeared in 89% of the videos analyzed with ~688 individuals recorded, and the African wildcat was observed in over a quarter of the videos. Whilst these species are categorized as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, they have unknown wild population trends meaning that there is currently no available information on the conservation status and distribution of these species in Togo. This raises significant concerns about the sustainability of the off take. The presence of these species in online trade, and the potential conservation implications, therefore, warrants further investigation. Moreover, juveniles of these species are extensively exported from Togo each year for the international pet trade (see CITES trade database: https://trade.cites.org/en/cites_trade - accessed 30.05.24). This practice may intensify pressure on monitor lizard populations in the country, posing a threat to their long-term conservation.

Other studies show that hunters in West Africa have reported declines in the availability of other species such as bushbuck, duiker, pangolin, porcupine, river hogs, and primates captured for bushmeat over the past decade (Alexander et al. 2015). In particular, the numbers of primates being killed throughout the region for wild meat is thought to be unsustainable (Bowen-Jones and Pendry 1999), with most hunting reportedly driven by economic incentives rather than sustenance. Efforts to conserve wildlife in Togo face significant challenges due to the cultural and economic benefits of the wild meat trade. For example, some communities, like Bassar in the central region, are well known for their traditional hunting (e.g. Sonhaye-Ouyé et al. 2022). Additionally, as wild meat is a vital source of protein and income for many communities in rural areas, authorities have found it difficult to enforce hunting regulations (Fa et al. 2002; D’Cruze et al. 2020; Luiselli et al. 2020; Sonhaye-Ouyé et al. 2022).

Aside from the conservation implications, this trade also represents a major public health risk due to the potential for zoonotic disease transmission (Rosen and Smith 2010; Ordaz-Nemeth et al. 2017; González et al. 2020; Morcatty et al. 2021; Nijman et al. 2023). The lack of biosecurity typical of traditional African bushmeat markets has been cited as an increasingly concerning pathway for disease transmission in recent decades (Can et al. 2019). Bushmeat from African wildlife, particularly primates and rodents, has been highlighted as a source for zoonotic pathogens (Smith et al. 2012; Peros et al. 2021), and bushmeat-related activities have been linked to numerous emerging infectious disease outbreaks, such as Ebola, HIV, and SARS (Kurpiers et al. 2016). Beyond zoonotic risks, transportation, handling and consuming wild meat can also expose people to bacterial and parasitic infections, foodborne illness, and toxic substances (van Vliet et al. 2017; Ahouanse et al. 2023). Several species detected in this study are of heightened zoonotic disease risk including small carnivores like the African wildcat, mongooses, and jackals, as well as rodents like rats, porcupines, and squirrels (Han et al. 2015; Johnson et al. 2020; Mgba 2024).

Our findings also draw attention to the animal welfare concerns associated with this type of trade. The posts analyzed featured thousands of individual wild animals, all of which would have suffered to some degree during capture, transport, onward sale and slaughter (Baker et al. 2013). Severe animal welfare issues are associated with the hunting practices of some of the species featured, such as pangolins. For example, pangolin hunting can involve animals being forcibly extracted from their burrows or tree dens during capture, and suffering may be particularly apparent during slaughter as it has been reported that the animals are sometimes still alive when they are placed in boiling water or fire to aid scale removal (D’Cruze et al. 2018).

Wildlife exploitation in Togo is regulated by international conventions and the Law No. 2008-09 of the Carrying Forest Code. For example, Article 79 of the Carrying Forest Code states that individuals must possess a hunting title or permit to engage in hunting activities, except when exercising customary or traditional hunting rights. However, the legal status of commercial wildlife trade in Togo is complicated by the presence of several different and potentially conflicting pieces of domestic legislation (D’Cruze et al. 2020). For example, while pangolins are partially protected by national legislation in Togo, their capture is allowed under certain circumstances in accordance with the Wildlife Protection and Hunting Ordinance (1968) and the updated Decree (1980). Despite these uncertainties, the videos analyzed, and the species shown, appear to violate national regulations. For example, Article 61 of the 005 Framework Law on the Environment (2008) stipulates that hunting should be managed in a sustainable manner. However, this is unlikely for some of the species featured in the posts, including pangolins, especially in the absence of effective monitoring and enforcement mechanisms.

From an international trade perspective, some of the wild animals sold online via TikTok are also currently afforded some level of legal protection via CITES, including the white-bellied pangolin (which is listed in CITES Appendix I), African wildcat, Nile monitor and Savanna monitor (all CITES Appendix II-listed). As such, the commercial trade of meat for international export and cross-border trade would be illegal if from CITES Appendix I-listed species, or from CITES Appendix II-listed species without an official export permit. However, the open advertisement of protected and threatened species on TikTok signals weak enforcement of both national and international legislation. In addition, there are reports of wild meat being clandestinely transported from rural areas to Lomé, often hidden within vehicles transporting goods such as charcoal, firewood, cereals and yam, sometimes even in minibuses carrying passengers (Assou, unpublished data). Similar observations have been reported in Burkina-Fazo (Hema et al. 2019). While the investigation into local wild meat consumption focuses on domestic trade in urban centers, the illegal accumulation and smuggling of easily preservable specimens, such as pangolins and their scales, remain a pressing concern (Nuwer 2020; Xi et al. 2025). Improper management and protection of animals locally could fuel illegal trade. Given the interconnected nature of local markets and consumer demand, it is possible that some of this trade illegally crosses borders, at least into Benin, Ghana and Nigeria (Koutchoro et al. 2024) because wild meat can easily move between countries within the sub-region due to the porosity of the borders (see Toudonou et al. 2022).

Moreover, the apparent ease of accessing wild meat online, along with reports of illegal wild meat products of West and Central African origin, most commonly rodents, being seized at European airports (Chaber et al. 2010, 2019; Wood et al. 2014), suggests that social media may also be facilitating trade outside of Africa. Indeed ‘luxury’ markets for African wild meat products are reportedly emerging in Europe (Chaber et al. 2010), possibly driven by financial incentives due to the higher prices that these products can fetch at markets in Europe (Moloney et al. 2023). The open sale of wildlife on TikTok also highlights inadequate enforcement of the platform’s own Community Guidelines (https://www.tiktok.com/community-guidelines/en) which state that content that depicts or promotes the poaching or illegal trade of wildlife is not allowed on the platform and will be removed when identified. While not all wildlife trade is necessarily illegal, some of the species featured in the posts, such as pangolins, are protected under national and international legislation. Their sale is likely to be unlawful without the necessary documentation or permits, which are neither shown nor referenced in any of the content reviewed.

We recognize some limitations to this study. Firstly, we analyzed eighty (80) posts across only two TikTok channels, and therefore it is possible that we have not captured the complete diversity of species or volume of wild meat products available for sale online. Rather, it is likely that our observations are just the tip of the iceberg. We provide important initial insight into this online trade; however, a full inventory of the wild animal species being sold online on TikTok was beyond the scope of this study. Regarding our estimates of the number of individual animals involved, although it is possible that the same individual animals are shown in more than one video, the fact that each individual video depicted a different setting with different species and numbers of individuals on display would suggest otherwise, though it was not possible to confirm this. Furthermore, the quality of videos posted and the status of the animals depicted (e.g. many were smoked) may have also limited our ability to accurately identify species, as we were unable to verify the species advertised through field surveys or DNA analysis. Although the authors have extensive experience assessing the wildlife and wild meat trade in Togo, developed over more than a decade of field work, we acknowledge that our analysis of the inferred species featured in the posts may not represent a complete or fully accurate taxonomic account. In addition, we highlight the accessibility of wild meat advertisements available online in Togo, but we cannot be certain that these products are actually being sold. Despite these limitations, we believe that our findings represent valuable information that can be used to help inform future efforts to protect wildlife in Togo.

Our findings provide further evidence on the role of social media in facilitating wild meat trade in West Africa, highlighting how conservation efforts should be vigilant to the full spectrum of wildlife trade markets including the rise in sales of wildlife online. In order to better understand and regulate national and international wildlife trade, we recommend closer monitoring of online advertisements and sales of wildlife, along with further investigations into the role of social media in facilitating this trade. Greater research efforts are needed to assess the impacts of online wild meat trade on both individual and wild animal populations, particularly in relation to animal welfare. In addition, studies should also explore how online visibility influences consumer demand and societal perceptions of wild meat consumption. In particular, this should include studies on the distribution and conservation status of species, as well as assessment of the impact of their exploitation on long-term conservation efforts (see CITES Resolution Conf. 13.11). In this context, species already considered threatened or Near Threatened by extinction (white-bellied pangolin, Buffon’s kob, and Defassa waterbuck), those listed as Data Deficient (e.g. Walter’s duiker), and those with populations already thought to be in decline (10 inferred species) should be prioritized.

Effective management of wildlife trade and consumption also requires strategies to reduce demand, underpinned by understanding of the underlying drivers (Zhang et al. 2022). Additional research should therefore focus on the socio-economic and societal pressures responsible for this type of consumer demand, including studies focused on consumer attitudes and behavior, hunting and trade practices, and the different actors involved in the trade (Moorhouse et al. 2023, 2024). This type of information could aid future initiatives aimed at minimizing any negative impacts on people and wildlife, including supporting alternative livelihood transitions for those who are economically dependent on the trade (Damania et al. 2005; Lindsey et al. 2013; Gonçalves et al. 2019). We also suggest that future studies incorporate more in-depth analysis of the sentiment of those interacting with these posts in order to inform the development of effective and targeted public awareness campaign strategies (Harrington et al. 2023).

As highlighted in this study, it is also important to note that women play a significant role in the urban wild meat trade, primarily as market vendors who supply wild meat to urban consumers (Green et al. 2024). Their participation in this sector is largely driven by economic necessity. However, despite their central role, women’s contributions are often overlooked in policy discussions and enforcement strategies. Green et al. (2024) advocate for a gender-sensitive approach to wildlife conservation and trade regulation, highlighting the importance of addressing the socio-economic realities faced by women in the wild meat trade to ensure interventions are both effective and equitable.

Finally, the accessibility of wild meat advertisements on TikTok clearly demonstrates shortcomings and the need for increased clarity regarding the domestic legislation and associated penalties (e. g. D’Cruze et al. 2020), and the differentiation between implications for subsistence and commercial use of wildlife in Togo. With regards to social media platforms, many including TikTok, have policies in place that prohibit the online sale of wildlife and endangered species, and are part of initiatives aimed at tackling wildlife crime, such as the Coalition to End Wildlife Trafficking Online (Coalition to End Wildlife Trafficking Online 2021; TRAFFIC 2021). However, actions of these platforms mainly target prohibiting illegal wildlife trade (Di Minin et al. 2018; Jain et al. 2020), and appear to be ineffective at restricting and removing wildlife trade content, highlighting limitations in their approach. Given their extensive resources and technological expertise, TikTok and other social media platforms should move beyond merely moderating content. Specifically, we recommend they implement automated detection systems to identify and remove illegal wildlife trade content (including posts featuring wild animal carcasses or derivatives). Platforms should also collaborate with conservation organizations and other wildlife experts to help verify suspicious posts and launch in-app awareness campaigns to educate users about the impacts of wildlife trade while promoting ethical wildlife engagement (Wu et al. 2018; Bergman et al. 2022).

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

No ethical statement was reported.

No use of AI was reported.

No funding was reported.

Assou D., Elwin A., Megson D., Ping X., Zeng Y., Zhu J., Segniagbeto G.H. and D’Cruze N. designed the study. Assou, D. conducted the data collection. Assou D. and Elwin A. processed and analyzed the data. The initial draft of the manuscript was written by Assou D. All contributing authors actively engaged in revising and reaching consensus on the final version for publication.

Delagnon Assou https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1593-1452

Angie Elwin https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8583-3295

Neil D'Cruze https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8006-3084

All of the data that support the findings of this study are available in the main text.