All data collection activities in this study were conducted in full compliance with Chinese laws and regulations. Field investigations were performed under permits issued by local forestry departments. Online monitoring was conducted using only publicly available information without engaging in any transactions. Population data were obtained through authorised research collaborations with protected area management authorities. All research activities followed the regulations governing the study of nationally protected plant species.

Field surveys were carried out across several regions in China where cycad populations are known to occur, focusing on areas experiencing infrastructure development and agricultural expansion. Survey sites included Hainan Jianfeng Mountain and other locations with documented cycad habitats.

During field investigations, we documented evidence of habitat destruction, fragmentation and conversion to alternative land uses. We recorded the presence and distribution of adult plants, saplings and seedlings at each site while assessing habitat conditions, including modifications due to infrastructure development (road networks, hydropower facilities) and agricultural conversion (commercial plantations, farmlands). All observations were photographically documented, with special attention to examples of habitat alteration and remaining cycad specimens. Based on these observations, we evaluated the potential for natural regeneration in affected populations, considering factors such as isolation, fragmentation and the presence of dispersal vectors.

To assess the extent of illegal trade in Chinese cycads, we systematically monitored e-commerce platforms and social media channels from 2022 to 2024. Our monitoring protocol included regular searches across multiple online platforms using keywords related to cycad species and variants of their common names. This monitoring allowed us to identify patterns in the online cycad trade and compare these patterns with known conservation concerns for specific species, revealing potential hotspots of collection pressure on wild populations.

We compiled conservation status information from multiple sources to comprehensively understand the threat level facing Chinese cycad species. This compilation included data from the IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants (Cycad Specialist Group 2024), national protection status under Chinese legislation –particularly the 2020 update listing all Cycas species as national first-class key protected plants (Zheng et al. 2017) – and Plant Species with Extremely Small Populations (PSESP) designations (Ma et al. 2013). Additionally, we reviewed existing scientific literature regarding population dynamics, genetic diversity and extinction risk factors specific to Chinese cycad species. The literature enabled us to contextualise our field observations within the broader understanding of cycad conservation biology and to identify critical knowledge gaps.

Special attention was given to comparative analysis with global cycad conservation cases, including parallel situations in South Africa involving Encephalartos populations (Stewart et al. 2023) and illegal trade patterns documented worldwide. This comparative approach allowed us to identify both unique challenges facing Chinese cycad species and potential conservation solutions that have proven effective in similar contexts globally.

Based on these analyses, we developed specific recommendations for habitat protection, community engagement and illegal trade prevention, emphasising practical implementation within the Chinese conservation policy framework. All field investigations were conducted with appropriate permits from relevant authorities. No specimens were collected during our research and care was taken to minimise disturbance to cycad populations and their habitats. The monitoring of online trade was performed using publicly available information and no transactions were initiated as part of this research.

Over the past decades, China has significantly strengthened its commitment to cycad conservation by establishing protected areas and conservation sites (Chen and Liu 2004; Xi et al. 2022). All species of the genus Cycas are now listed as national first-class key protected plants from 2020, receiving the highest level of legal protection (Zheng et al. 2017). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants has designated about two-thirds of the world’s extant cycad species as threatened (Cycad Specialist Group 2024). Almost all of China’s cycad species have been listed as threatened or near threatened and some species have been classified as Plant Species with Extremely Small Populations (PSESP) (Ma et al. 2013). The limited genetic diversity of isolated subpopulations may accentuate the vulnerability to local extinction.

Despite various scientific designations and legislative safeguards, habitat destruction continues sporadically, particularly through infrastructure development and land-use changes (Xiao et al. 2020). Field investigations reveal that major infrastructure projects, including road networks and hydropower facilities, have directly destroyed or fragmented several cycad populations, especially in mountainous regions where many endemic species occur. Large-scale infrastructure projects, in conjunction with their collateral impact envelope, can potentially wipe out a notable portion of a species range. For instance, the construction of the hydropower station in Hainan Jianfeng Mountain has impacted local Cycas populations. This development mirrors similar cases worldwide, such as the habitat destruction of Encephalartos populations in South Africa due to artificial interference (Stewart et al. 2023).

Agricultural expansion has further exacerbated habitat loss, with traditional cycad habitats converted into commercial plantations and farmlands (Fig. 2). The habitat destruction eliminates existing plants and growth conditions. It disrupts critical ecological processes, including pollinator relationships and natural recruitment patterns (Terry et al. 2012). The cumulative effect of these activities can fragment an original species range into multiple small isolated subpopulations, reducing genetic diversity and exchange and threatening long-term population viability.

The relatively large and heavy cycad seeds with limited dispersal distance (Dehgan and Yuen 1983; Hall and Walter 2013) can trap the remnant plants in dismembered and disjointed pockets. Vertebrate dispersers may be unable to traverse the wide distance and stressful conditions between pockets. Moreover, habitat degradation or destruction will likely stifle or eliminate the cycads’ companion biotic dispersers. Therefore, the natural regeneration ability of the isolated subpopulations can be critically compromised. In addition, the excessive collection of cycad seeds for horticultural purposes can diminish the living seed bank and aggravate the reproductive decline of the contracted and dispersed ranges.

The rise of e-commerce platforms has dramatically accelerated the unregulated collection and trade in Chinese cycads (Fig. 3), creating unprecedented challenges for conservation. Online marketplaces have become the primary channel for the unregulated trade of these protected species, with sellers using sophisticated methods to avoid conservation monitoring (Lavorgna and Sajeva 2021). Our monitoring reveals an alarming volume of cycad specimens advertised online, often marketed as “rare collections”, collected from wild populations or disguised as legally sourced plants. This pattern reflects global trends, similar to the surge in the unregulated collection activities of South African cycads through social media platforms (Williamson et al. 2016; Torgersen 2017).

The ease of online transactions has enabled collectors to efficiently connect with buyers (Perdue 2021), increasing sales and, hence, collection pressure on wild populations. Particularly concerning is the preference for mature specimens (Fig. 3A–C, F, H–J), which can fetch higher prices, but are also the most valuable for population survival. This targeted removal of reproductive adults has devastating consequences for population dynamics, as cycads’ slow growth rates mean that replacing these individuals can take decades. Seed and seedling harvesting (Fig. 3D, G, K) can also eliminate the chances of natural regeneration.

Figure 2.

Cycad habitat impacted by orchard cultivation. A. Mango tree planted in the orchard; B. Cycad seedlings remaining at the orchard’s edge; C. Resprouted cycad after cutting; D. Adult cycad plant still surviving at the orchard’s edge, indicating that the site was a suitable habitat for the species.

Figure 3.

Cycads offered for sale online in China. A, C, F, H, I. Adult individuals; D, K, J. Saplings and seedlings; E. Germinated seed; G. Seeds. Most sellers claimed in their product descriptions that the plants were wild-collected.

Based on the survey of the alarming plight of natural cycad populations and their expanding online trading of mature plants and plant parts, preventative and protective measures are urgently required to contain the increasing pull factor on plant collection:

1. Strengthening protection. Protecting cycad habitats requires a multi-tiered and integrated approach, centred on ecosystem-level conservation. Priority should be given to establishing buffer zones around existing cycad populations to provide an assured cordon around the core ranges against perturbations (Tobgay et al. 2023), particularly in areas where infrastructure development is planned. These buffer zones should extend at least 1 km beyond known populations to maintain ecological connectivity and protect pollinator communities (Oliveira et al. 2020). To ensure effectiveness, environmental impact assessments must specifically include cycad population assessments before any infrastructure projects are approved in potential cycad habitats. A national cycad habitat restoration programme should also be initiated, focusing on degraded sites with historical cycad populations (Chen and Liu 2004; Huang 2011; Zheng et al. 2017). This programme should prioritise the restoration of native vegetation communities that support cycad recruitment and establishment.
2. Engaging local communities. This approach is crucial for sustainable habitat protection. Local communities should be empowered by establishing a “Cycad Safeguarding Network” − a society-based organisation that provides economic incentives for habitat protection, while building local capacity for conservation. These networks can integrate traditional ecological knowledge with scientific monitoring protocols (Kühl et al. 2020), creating sustainable livelihoods through activities, such as cycad population monitoring, habitat restoration and authorised seed collection for legitimate propagation programmes (Kumar et al. 2023). A sense of ownership can be nurtured to ensure villagers take pride in protecting their precious local resources. Success has been demonstrated in similar programmes for other endangered plants, such as community-based conservation projects in Indonesia (Damastuti et al. 2022).
3. Monitoring anthropogenic collection activities. Monitoring anthropogenic collection activities requires advanced information technology to track unregulated collection, trade networks and operations. A specialised conservation monitoring unit utilising predictive analytics and artificial intelligence should be established (Berk 2021; Haley and Burrell 2025), focusing specifically on monitoring online collection and trade activities (Lavorgna 2014). This unit should employ advanced image recognition algorithms to automatically detect cycad listings across multiple platforms, enabling rapid and pinpointed responses to unregulated collection activities (Lavorgna et al. 2020). Given the success of similar technologies in combating the illegal trade of pangolin scales (Cardoso et al. 2023), these tools could be readily adapted for cycad protection.

Conservation monitoring of cycad trade should be strengthened by implementing a digital tracking system that combines DNA barcoding with blockchain technology (Williamson et al. 2016). Each authorised cycad plant or plant part should be assigned a unique digital identifier linked to its genetic profile and chain of custody information. This system would allow instant verification of legal specimens, while making it more difficult to launder illegally-collected plants into legitimate markets. Similar systems have proven effective in timber tracking and could be adapted for the cycad trade (Lowe and Cross 2011), with particular attention to high-risk species and trade hotspots.

In addition to the key conservation measures discussed above, we recommend incorporating the following complementary strategies into a broader protection framework: establishing a national cycad conservation coordination mechanism involving forestry departments, research institutions, customs and law enforcement to enhance policy coherence and information sharing; strengthening public education through outreach to communities, enthusiasts and policy-makers, along with school-based environmental programmes; deepening international cooperation by actively participating in CITES enforcement and sharing governance experience with relevant countries; and promoting artificial propagation and legal nursery operations to sustainably meet market demand and reduce pressure on wild populations. These integrated actions can further strengthen China’s cycad conservation outcomes.

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

No ethical statement was reported.

No use of AI was reported.

This research was supported by the Hainan Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant number: 725RC789), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant number: 32360417) and the Research Matching Grant of the Research Grants Council of Hong Kong (CB301).

C.X. conceived and wrote the original draft; C.Y.J. reviewed and edited the manuscript.

Chunping Xie https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6228-7225

C. Y. Jim https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4052-8363

All of the data that support the findings of this study are available in the main text.