Conservation In Practice |
Corresponding author: Greg P. A. Lamarre ( greglamarre973@gmail.com ) Academic editor: Michael Samways
© 2018 Greg P. A. Lamarre, Yohan Juin, Emmanuel Lapied, Philippe Le Gall, Akihiro Nakamura.
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Citation:
Lamarre GPA, Juin Y, Lapied E, Le Gall P, Nakamura A (2018) Using field-based entomological research to promote awareness about forest ecosystem conservation. Nature Conservation 29: 39-56. https://doi.org/10.3897/natureconservation.29.26876
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Interactions between plants, insect herbivores and associated predators represent the majority of terrestrial biodiversity. Insects are vital food sources for many other organisms and provide important ecosystem functions and services including pollination, waste removal and biological control. We propose a complete and reproducible education programme to guide students to understand the importance of managing and conserving forest ecosystems in their region through the study of insect ecology and natural history. Our programme involved lectures, workshops and field surveys of insects with a group of 60 high school students in Eastern Africa (Ethiopia). It addresses the key stages of an entomological research project including: 1) general entomological knowledge and understanding the role of insects in terrestrial diversity and in ecosystem functioning and services; (2) the proposal of simple research questions including hypothesis development and evaluation using scientific literature, 3) fieldwork using different types of light traps; 4) sorting and identification of the insect orders using simple diagnostic keys and illustrated plates; 5) analysing and interpreting the results and 6) demonstrating findings to peers and a public audience. Identifying insects, exploring their natural history and understanding their functions in the field bring the students towards a better understanding and awareness of the importance of forest ecosystem conservation.
Conservation awareness, forest ecosystem, Ethiopia, biological education, Des Insectes et des Hommes, public outreach
Insects and plants have undergone a co-evolutionary arms race for over 200 million years (
The importance of insects and the ecosystem functions they provide are best-illustrated by their fascinating natural history. This facilitates the use of insects as a model for an introduction to ecology and public outreach towards ecosystem conservation and management. For example, insects are soil engineers. Excluding decomposer and detritivorous insects from a forest ecosystem leads to the accumulation of unrecycled organic matter (
Despite its global importance, entomology as a discipline has been slowly disappearing along with a lack of formal training and the rarity of insect taxonomists in universities (
“Entomologists are like endangered mammals such as tigers and polar bears in that they and their habitats are on the verge of extinction and this is likely to have a profound negative effect on science in general”.
The statement is generally shared amongst the scientific communities where basic biodiversity research is being neglected (
Here we recommend the use of insects and field study in biological education programmes to increase the understanding of the value of biodiversity. In our field study, the action of observing and inspecting live insects, in the middle of the forest at night for the first time, is unique in creating a memorable experience of nature (
The programme addresses every step of entomological research projects and is comparable to a typical undergraduate entomology programme. These activities include: (1) acquisition of general entomological knowledge and understanding the role of insects in terrestrial ecosystem functioning and services; (2) proposal for research questions including hypothesis development and evaluation using scientific literature; (3) fieldwork using light traps as the main collecting technique; (4) sorting and the identification of the 10 main orders of insects using illustrated plates and entomological supports; (5) database preparation, data collection and analysis and interpretation of the results; (6) communicating their findings to the public audience via oral presentation and written reports.
The general philosophy of our field course is governed by the need for investigating the identity (taxonomy), exploring natural history and understanding the functions (ecology) of insects in an observable way in the field. We envisage that this process will develop behavioural changes in the participants and presentation audiences, such as greater curiosity towards insects and their habitats and a motivation to protect them (conservation). The proposed educational programme also provides a basic understanding of natural forest ecosystems at both global and local scales, fostering local community awareness of forest habitat disturbances and the need for conservation in their region.
The French High school Guebre-Mariam in Addis-Abeba (Ethiopia) hosted the project and provided facilities for the lectures, the lab work and the student oral presentations. The target groups are primarily high school students, but this does not exclude the course being applied to other lower and higher education students as well as the wider public (
Fieldwork occurred in the Oromiya region within the Menagesha National Park, located at Suba village, 50 km east from Addis-Abeba. The protected forest represents nearly 10000 ha of altitudinal subtropical forests including 2500 ha of pristine forest and 1000 ha of plantations in the surroundings (
We led a complete and reproducible education programme using the study of insect to guide the students towards understanding the importance of conserving and managing forest ecosystems in their region. The programme ran for one entire school week with approximately 8 hours of activities per day (Monday to Friday, 18–22 April 2016) which included a total of 5–6 hours fieldwork at night. Five sequences are presented chronologically below to describe the programme activities. Finally, we discussed the education implications of our course by summarising feedback from the students and teachers 18 months after the programme was concluded.
Sequence #1: Introduction to insect ecology (Day 1, lectures ~ 4h). The first sequence consisted of a general introduction to insect diversity and ecology (Figure
Slide, plates and pictures used for the teaching of the role of insect in global diversity and ecosystem functioning (Seq#1). It includes the PowerPoint presentation for lectures; an illustration of a dung beetle to present their crucial role as soil engineers; an illustrated plate of the multiple arthropods observed in tropical rainforests and finally the myriad insects inhabiting one unique tree associated with different niches (Evans, 1977).
Finally, we presented the daily schedule of the programme to all participants and formed the field groups before organising the equipment. The participants were encouraged by teachers to ask practical as well as scientific questions about the programme. As a mandatory step prior to any scientific project, we recommended a literature review. In our case, students reviewed online biodiversity studies pertinent to Ethiopian forest ecosystems. We introduced students to an online scientific literature search engine, in this case Google Scholar, which was previously unknown to most students. However, we found neither a local insect list nor any entomofaunal knowledge for our study region (with the exception of information associated with human related vector mosquitoes and flies, but see
Sequence #2: Workshop for building research questions (day 1, lab activities ~2h). We allocated student groups to two classrooms to keep the number of students manageable during the workshop. Instructors, GPAL and YJ, led the workshop discussion. In each class, in concert with the students that reached some specific interests in particular insect group, we proposed a series of simple research questions on insect community composition and structure (community ecology). These questions were related to the previous lectures and were feasible to investigate within the duration of the fieldwork (i.e. generating a sufficient dataset) and the timeline of the project (Table
Scientific questions proposed and examined by each of the six groups during the programme Des Insectes et des Hommes with the themes and topics relevant to the questions.
Groups | No students | Questions (FR) | Questions (ENG) | Themes and relevant topics related to lectures | Proposed by |
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Group 1 | 12 | Quels sont les différents types de pièges utilisés pour réaliser un échantillonnage standardisé d’une communauté d’insecte? | Which insect traps do we use to sample a standardised insect community? | Methodology (Insect sampling), complementarity of traps for distinct taxonomic and/or functional groups, Inventory and monitoring techniques (day-night) | Instructors |
Group 2 | 10 | Comment, après la collecte, trier les insectes? | How, after sampling, do entomologists sort their insect collection? | Methodology (procedure after sampling), entomology (sorting, organising, labelling, identification), museum (conditioning and transport, fate in collection) | Students |
Group 3 | 10 | Quelles sont les différences de captures d’insectes entre les deux types de pièges lumineux? | What are the differences in insect community structure (abundance-based per order) between the two different light traps? | Physiology (contrasting responses to light intensity, phototaxis), range of light attraction amongst forest habitats (spatial independence between traps), ecology (insect diversity of Ethiopian forest) | Instructors |
Group 4 | 8 | Quels sont les trois ordres dominants d’insectes de la forêt de Menagesha? | What are the three most dominant insect orders in the Menagesha National Park? | Conservation biology, biodiversity study (species list, field inventory for protected area), ecology, (community structure and composition in subtropical altitudinal forest) | Students |
Group 5 | 8 | Par quel type de piège lumineux les lépidoptères sont-ils le plus attirés ? | What is the most efficient light trapping technique to capture a moth community? | Conservation biology (biological indicator), methodology (efficiency), long-term monitoring (umbrella species, Lepidoptera), sampling bias | Instructors |
Group 6 | 9 | Quelles sont les différences d’abondance de capture de Coléoptères et de Lépidoptères entre le 19 avril et le 20 avril ? | What is the relative abundance in Lepidoptera and Coleoptera before and after rainy events? | Ecology, climate change (responses of contrasting functional groups under rainy event), plant-insect interactions (food sources for herbivore insects with host-plant producing new leaves early rainy season) | Instructors/ students |
Overall | 57 |
During this workshop, one group decided to investigate the three most dominant insect orders found in the national park to generate an illustrated leaflet detailing the charismatic and dominant insects for future visitors. GPAL briefly lectured in Sequence #1 about other insect sampling techniques that might be employed in forest ecosystems and the importance of trap choice in targeting specific insect functional groups (
Sequence #3: Fieldwork using light traps (first class, day 2; and second class, day 3). Prior to the students’ arrival, we first explained the survey protocols (including the safety procedures) to the national park service and rangers. Each student from the two classes performed one entire day and a part of the night in the field. We set up two types of light traps in the forest understorey for two nights at around 1 km from the camp in the afternoon (~2 hours taken for trap installation, day 2). The first light trap consisted of a 2.5 m × 1.5 m white sheet attached between two tree trunks using ropes. We suspended one 250 W mercury vapour bulb, powered by a generator, in the upper centre of the white sheet to attract nocturnal flying insects (Figure
Pictures from the light-trapping session with two classes of the French High school Guebre-Mariam of Addis- Abeba (Seq#3). The students developed specific entomological skills from the different methods and recognised the choice of the trap needed to target a given insect. The students worked at night and respected safety procedure with toxic products (see killing jars) and finally were able to collect live insects manually. The second light trap technique (i.e. actinic lamp) is shown on the two left pictures while the manual light trap is shown on the four right-side pictures.
During the day, we also introduced the use of aerial fruit traps and pitfall traps for collecting the butterflies, wasps, ants, beetles and spiders commonly found in the understorey and in the canopy (Suppl. material
Fieldwork is often considered as the exciting and adventurous part for field biologists. We shared our experiences of working in tropical countries with the students before dinner (1800 h) and prepared to reach the light trapping sites with headlamps. Before commencing night-time fieldwork, the instructors conducted the safety briefing (e.g. with regards to venomous insects, generator cables and cold weather), explained the schedule and, with students, organised the equipment such as collecting and killing jars (for safety reasons, we used nail polish instead of cyanides), forceps and sample labels. When arriving at light traps, most participants were quick to show an interest in knowing the names of collected insect specimens. The illustrated plates (Figure
Illustrated plates of some insect orders created for the programme, used to provide the scientific terminology and enabled students to apply and use knowledge connected to the taxonomy of a given insect (Seq#3, #4). Plates are available upon request to the corresponding author.
Sequence #4: Sorting and identification of the main orders of insects (day 4, lab activities ~6h). One of the objectives of the programme was for the students to be able to identify the major insect orders observed in situ and to take a closer look at insect morphological and functional traits under the microscope. For this purpose, we created coloured plates illustrating examples of insects belonging to each order and simple taxonomic identification keys (Figure
Pictures of the laboratory activities including the organisation, sorting and counting of the collected specimen using a systematic procedure under microscope (Seq#4).
All individual specimens from light trapping were counted and identified to order level. Collected specimens included Lepidoptera (moths), Coleoptera (beetles), Hemiptera (true bugs), Orthoptera (grasshoppers), Hymenoptera (bees, wasps, ants), Diptera (flies, mosquitoes), Mantodea (praying-mantises), Phasmatodea (stick insects) and also other arthropods (e.g. spiders). We observed that most of the difficulties in identification were in distinguishing Diptera from Hymenoptera, in some cases one pair of wings was detached or absent. Instructors were able to work interactively with the students to resolve their identification problems and pointed out additional useful morphological traits (e.g. buccal appendices in addition to wing pattern). The use of drawings in notebooks coupled with a microscope camera helped students to learn the diagnostic characteristics effectively. We also recommended the use of a projector, which offers a direct visualisation of the differences in insect morphology illustrated by high-resolution pictures or diagrams. Lepidoptera, Coleoptera and Hemiptera were the most successfully identified taxa. Some large-sized Hemiptera in Coreidae, Reduviidae and Pentatomidae families were sometimes confused with beetles. Mantodea and Phasmatodea were well distinguished from other orders after the first observation. Separating the different orders in the field (after observation and collection) and the lab (under microscope) received positive feedback by the students and was generally perceived as less challenging than the identification of specimens at higher taxonomic level (family or genus). However, confirmation of students’ identifications by instructors was needed. This often generated valuable discussions within a small group of students on the process of discriminating key morphological features amongst insect orders and on functional attributes related to ecosystem services (e.g. pollen-carrying apparatus in bees).
Sequence #5, #6: How to present your data and report your findings? (day 5, lab activities ~5h). We introduced Microsoft Excel software and gave instructions on correct data formatting procedures (Excel was projected on a screen from the teacher’s computer). First, one student per group volunteered to enter the insect data. It consisted of the abundances (the number of individuals) of insect orders, the abundances per sampling nights for each insect order or, for some student groups, the abundances associated with the total number of individuals of each order collected between rainy and dry nights from the two type of traps. Each group composed one Excel spreadsheet. Second, GPAL and YJ visited each group to show students how to generate graphical diagrams of their data in Excel. Most of the students chose either bar plots or Venn diagrams to present their results (Figure
The French High School Guebre-Mariam, managed by the Mission laïque française and government-regulated with the AEFE (Agency for French education abroad). An example of results produced during the programme and, inside the high school, the amphitheatre that offers the opportunity for students to organise and follow their own symposium, a chance to develop maturity, motivation, leadership and self-confidence (Seq#5#6).
This biological education programme not only taught scientific procedure and methods, but also trained the students to present to the public audience, sometimes for the first time. This last step was mandatory as it is a common method of communicating the results of any scientific project and is a valuable transferable skill for students to learn. Presentations generally involved demonstrating their results and conclusions to peers and the public audience through using scientific articles, conference presentations, posters and popular science articles. Each group prepared their presentation and selected designated speakers for a given number of slides in running order. At least one practice run was carried out per group. The students of each group presented their findings in the high school amphitheatre in front of about 80 participants consisting of students from other classes, parents, teachers, project partners and administrative employees. At the end of each presentation, five minutes were given for questions from the audience, generally with encouragement from the biology teachers (Figure
Biology teachers wanting to conduct this field course, should first gain a basic understanding of insect ecology (with the help of entomologists) to aid in the implementation and learning outcomes of the course. When building the proposal for the project, we found it extremely important to integrate the programme “Des insectes et des Hommes” in advance into the school’s formal annual plan of science courses. This integration also provided teacher (YJ) an opportunity to be involved in participative science, a goal encouraged by the French Ministry of Education. This programme trains students effectively in scientific writing and communication in at least three different ways. First, students learnt a large array of scientific writing and communication skills, such as labelling, note taking, data entry, analysis, interpretation and oral presentation (e.g. cognitive dimension,
Insects are often perceived as pests. Interestingly, this programme helped change students’ attitudes towards insects through the experience of sampling and handling live insects. This is one of the main advantages of using light trapping, which yields a large number of live specimens. As we naturally fear what we do not understand, insects trigger strong emotions in us, both positive (diversity, shape and colours) and negative (fear of bites and diseases). Educating about insects through field experience is one way of convincing society at large that insects are more than just “creepy crawlies”.
To investigate how the students perceived insects in general and understood their biodiversity and roles in ecosystem functioning, we sent an online questionnaire eighteen months after the programme concluded. We proposed a series of questions to 1) a test-group of students that followed the educational programme and 2) a control-group of students that did not attend the programme (i.e. the 3 absent students). The students who attended the programme gave a very good evaluation (100% of the students gave positive marks). Students were asked to choose a few words from a provided selection to describe the roles of insects in terrestrial ecosystems (Suppl. material
Despite the often uncomfortable and unusual working environment, all students selected the fieldwork as their favourite activity during the project (Sequence #3). Our results confirmed that observing and collecting insects in the field can invoke interest, wonder and curiosity towards local natural ecosystems, increase understanding of their importance in terrestrial biodiversity and ecosystem functioning and finally leading the audience to increasing conservation awareness. Due to the limited number of students in the control-group, we were not able to adequately analyse the social benefits and cognitive education merits of our project. However, the overall positive feedback certainly assures the significance of our education programme. We recommended using similar online questionnaires after conducting the programme as this allows for comparisons in the perception of participants and non-participants towards biodiversity and nature conservation.
We conclude that students who participated in this programme gained a better understanding of the extent of terrestrial diversity and its relationship to the crucial ecosystem functions and services provided by insects. Many insect groups, which the students observed during the light trapping, were identified successfully using simple taxonomic identification keys, the illustrated plates and support from demonstrators. Furthermore, the students understood that entomologists are investigating insect functional traits (as observed under microscope) to help find solutions to the challenges our planet faces such as climate change and deforestation (
This work was supported by The Agency for French Education Abroad through the Actions Pédagogiques Pilotes (APP-AEFE) `2015–2016’ under Grant 275H01. The European Research Council Grant (No. 669609) supported GPAL during the writing of the paper. We are thankful to education services and direction of the French High school Guebre-Mariam that helped during the week. Discover Abyssinia Tours provides the logistic support, safety and vehicles (http://www.dabyssinia.com.et/). We are thankful to the rangers and employees of the Menagesha-Suba Forest associate to the enthusiasm of all the students that participated in the project. We are grateful to Stéphane Brûlé and Vincent Vedel (SEAG) for sharing pictures. We thank Yves Basset, Simon Segar and Christopher Jeffs for valuable comments and discussions.
Supplementary figures