Research Article |
Corresponding author: Lalita Gomez ( lalita.gomez@mcrsociety.org ) Academic editor: Mark Auliya
© 2021 Lalita Gomez.
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Citation:
Gomez L (2021) The illegal hunting and exploitation of porcupines for meat and medicine in Indonesia. Nature Conservation 43: 109-122. https://doi.org/10.3897/natureconservation.43.62750
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Indonesia is home to five species of porcupines, three of which are island endemics. While all five species are currently assessed as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, impacts of harvest and trade have not been factored in. To gain a fuller understanding of the porcupine trade in Indonesia, this study examines seizure data of porcupines, their parts and derivatives from January 2013 to June 2020. A total of 39 incidents were obtained amounting to an estimated 452 porcupines. Various confiscated commodities revealed porcupines are traded for consumption, traditional medicine, trophies/charms as well as for privately run wildlife/recreational parks. Targeted hunting of porcupines for commercial international trade was also evident. Porcupines are also persecuted as agricultural pests and wildlife traffickers take advantage of such situations to procure animals for trade. What clearly emerges from this study is that porcupines are being illegally hunted and exploited throughout their range in Indonesia facilitated by poor enforcement and legislative weakness. Porcupines are in decline due to habitat loss, retaliatory killings and uncontrolled poaching. It is therefore crucial that effective conservation measures are taken sooner rather than later to prevent further depletion of these species. Including all porcupines as protected species under Indonesian wildlife laws and listing them in Appendix II of CITES to improve regulation, enforcement and monitoring of domestic and international trade trends involving porcupines in Indonesia would contribute significantly towards this end.
Illegal wildlife trade, seizures, traditional medicine, wildlife consumption
Commercial exploitation of wildlife for meat and medicine has become a significant threat to species globally (
Lesser-known species similarly exploited for the meat and medicine trade in Asia are porcupines. An increasing body of evidence reveals the heavy hunting and trade of porcupines in Asia that are resulting in population declines (
During a 2019 survey for porcupine bezoars on e-commerce websites in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore, 121 adverts selling approximately 680–1332 bezoars were obtained over a three-month period (
Five species of porcupines exist in Indonesia–long-tailed porcupine (Trichys fasciculata) and Malayan porcupine (Hystrix brachyura) occur on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra, Sumatran porcupine (H. sumatrae), endemic to the island of Sumatra, Sunda porcupine (H. javanica) endemic to the islands of Java, Bali, Sumbawa, Flores, Lombok, Madura, and Tonahdjampea, and thick-spined porcupine (H. crassispinis) endemic to the island of Borneo (Figure
I collected records of seizures and prosecutions relating to porcupine species in Indonesia for the period January 2013–June 2020. Data were extracted from the Indonesian government website, Sistem Informasi Penelusuran Pekara (SIPP) – an open access information database of the courts for each district in the country and from published online media articles. Searches for related seizures were conducted in both English (search terms: hunting, trapping, trade, illegal trade or wildlife trade in porcupine/Hystrix) and Indonesian (search terms: ‘BKSDA’, ‘penyelundupan satwa landak/Hystrix’, ‘perdagangan satwa landak/Hystrix’, ‘polisi satwa landak/Hystrix’, konservasi landak/Hystrix). All reported seizures were carefully checked to avoid duplication.
From each record obtained, I extracted information on date of seizure, species of porcupine seized, commodity (live animals, body parts, etc), quantities of each commodity, purpose of hunting/trade (i.e. for consumption, pets, trophies, etc), location of seizures and trafficking routes, suspects arrested and prosecution outcomes. Using this data, I have also mapped important trade hubs and centres where trade exists. Species identification is based on information extracted from seizure incidents obtained and it is assumed to be accurately reported. Generally, species identified as being seized fell within their distribution range in Indonesia with the exception of one incident where a live Sunda porcupine, which has a restricted distribution to Java and neighbouring islands, was reportedly seized from a ‘wildlife recreational park’ in West Kalimantan. I have conservatively estimated a minimum number of porcupines recorded in trade from commodities confiscated per seizure incident. Commodities seized generally consisted of live or dead animals and to a lesser extent, bezoar (assuming that one bezoar equates to one animal), and quills (3 incidents involving between 10 and 115 quills which I equate to being from one individual animal in each incident).
From January 2013 to June 2020, I obtained 39 incidents in which porcupines were seized in Indonesia involving an estimated 454 porcupines (Figure
The number of seizure incidents involving porcupines in Indonesia from January 2013–June 2020, including species involved and estimated number of whole animals.
The most frequent and abundant commodity seized were of live animals (80% of incidents amounting to 429 estimated animals) (Table
Porcupine commodities seized per species from January 2013 to June 2020 and quantities seized in Indonesia.
Species | Seizures (#) | Estimated whole specimens | Commodity Seized | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
bezoar (piece) | dead (whole) | live (whole) | meat (skewers) | internal organ | quills | |||
Unspecified | 26 | 281 | 2 | 18 | 256 | 26 | 1 | 236 |
Malayan Porcupine | 8 | 126 | 126 | |||||
Sumatran Porcupine | 1 | 40 | 40 | |||||
Sunda Porcupine | 4 | 7 | 7 | |||||
Total | 39 | 454 | 2 | 19 | 429 | 26 | 1 | 236 |
Of the 39 seizure incidents, 48.7% occurred in Sumatra, followed by Java and surrounding islands (43.6%) (Figure
Location of porcupine seizure incidents by provinces in Indonesia including number of seizures at each location and estimated whole porcupines involved from January 2013 to June 2020; as well as the range of the five porcupine species that occur in Indonesia based on data extracted from the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
In Java and surrounding islands, an estimated 44 porcupines were seized predominantly from individuals involved in the trade of live animals and parts (9 incidents, 13 estimated whole animals); or from individuals that were keeping/in possession of a variety of wild animals without a legal permit (8 incidents, 31 estimated whole animals). Only in one of these incidents was it reported that a suspect was caught for illegally trapping and keeping wild porcupines which he subsequently used for breeding purposes.
There were only three incidents reported in Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo) amounting to an estimated three porcupines (~2 live animals and 111 quills). In two incidents individuals were caught running a wildlife animal park/ mini zoo without a valid permit and involved multiple species including sun bears, birds, deer, slow loris, binturong, crocodiles, etc; and in one incident an accessory shop was raided and found to be illegally trading in protected wildlife parts including orangutan, sun bear, hornbill, muntjac, pangolin, sea turtles, deer and porcupine.
In the majority of incidents (67%), despite predominantly involving live animals, the species of porcupine seized was not reported making it difficult to determine if specific species are being targeted or whether all species are exploited for trade. However, at least three species were seized which seems to suggest the latter. Further, considering the over-lapping distribution range of the various species (with the exception of the Sunda porcupine), it is safe to assume that trade could potentially encompass all five species. That said, studies have shown that the Malayan porcupine is likely the main species found in trade in Asia primarily due to its wide distribution (
This can likely be explained by the protection status of different porcupine species in Indonesia. The Act of the Republic of Indonesia No.5 of 1990 concerning conservation of living resources and their ecosystems, widely known as the Conservation Act (No.5) 1990, is the principal legislation pertaining to the regulation of wildlife trade in Indonesia. Under this Act, species are categorized as “Protected” or “Unprotected”. Protected species are prohibited from being caught, injured, killed, kept, possessed, cared for, transported, or traded whether alive or dead, unless permitted by the Government; and are listed under Government Regulation No.7, 1999, Concerning the preservation of flora and fauna. Prior to 2018, the only porcupine species protected in Indonesia was the Malayan porcupine. The only time the protected species list has been revised, since it was gazetted, was in 2018, first in July and then again in September the same year. The amendments included the removal of the Malayan porcupine and the addition of the Sunda porcupine. Since then, seizures of the Malayan porcupine have not been reported. Removal of the Malayan porcupine from the protected species list is highly questionable considering it is the species most frequently confiscated and perhaps this is another indication of the lack of political will to combat the trafficking of wildlife of commercial value. For example, the Indonesian government revising the protected species list twice within months of release in 2018 was the result of pressure from bird traders to remove certain species that were newly added to the list due to significant population declines (
Technically, the trade and collection of unprotected species in Indonesia is regulated by harvest quotas that are established annually under the Decree of the Minister of Forestry Number 447/Kpts-II/2003 concerning the administration directive of harvest and capture and distribution of the specimens of wild plant and animal species. For the duration of this study period (2013–2020) no harvest quotas were established for the five porcupine species found here and therefore any porcupine in trade are of illegal origins. Having said that, there are no provisions in any of these laws regarding penalties or fines against those violating harvest quotas or/and trading in unprotected species, rendering enforcement action pointless. Notably, porcupine seizures in Indonesia peaked in 2018 with nine seizures (involving an estimated 88 animals) and subsequently dropped to two seizures in 2019 (involving an estimated 3 animals). The inadequate regulation of harvest quotas has been raised countless times with regards to Indonesian species in trade and is seen as a deliberate impediment to conservation of its species (
This study revealed a local demand for live porcupines and their parts. In one incident, actual porcupine meat on skewers was seized. Locally, porcupine meat is consumed as an alternative source of protein, as a medicinal cure for asthma and improving one’s vitality, and as an aphrodisiac (
There was also evidence of targeted hunting of porcupines for commercial international trade, predominantly in Sumatra. In an incident that occurred in the province of North Sumatra, 56 live porcupines were seized. According to the suspects arrested, they were hired to transport the animals to Aceh from where they would then be shipped to China. This confirms previous anecdotal information concerning porcupines being shipped to China from Indonesia and other countries in Southeast Asia (C.R. Shepherd, pers. comm). Further, incidents in the provinces of Aceh, North Sumatra and West Sumatra, where the greatest number of porcupines were seized (on average approximately 32–33 animals per incident), have frequently revealed these areas to be important wildlife trade hubs where animals are smuggled out of Indonesia (
What clearly emerges from this study is that porcupines are being illegally hunted and exploited throughout their range in Indonesia for local subsistence and commercial trade. While it is difficult to determine the impact this has on porcupine populations, reports in Indonesia indicate the species are in decline due to habitat loss and conversion as well as uncontrolled poaching (Salviana et al. 2017;
Commercialisation of the meat and traditional medicine trade is a key driver of species decline on a global scale (
As porcupines face a multitude of threats – habitat loss, retaliatory killings, targeted hunting for commercial trade – it is crucial that all porcupines be listed as protected species under Indonesian wildlife laws to improve regulation and enforcement against illegal trade. Greater resources should also be channelled to improving wildlife regulations, enforcement and scrutiny relating to the uptake of wild animals including species currently without formal protection. A thorough examination of the commercial trade of porcupines is warranted so that appropriate mitigation measures can be developed to protect porcupines from unsustainable and illegal exploitation. More in–depth research is similarly needed to understand porcupine population dynamics in Indonesia to improve understanding of their conservation status, to assess and establish harvest quotas essential for ensuring sustainable trade, and in general to monitor the overall impacts of commercial trade on wild populations. Echoing
Special thanks to Biofagri Rachmayuningtyas whose research and local language skills were a tremendous help in data collection and Chris R. Shepherd for his review of an earlier draft.