Research Article |
Academic editor: William Magnusson
© 2022 Lizeth Aguirre Sierra, Diego A. Zárrate-Charry, Leonardo Lemus-Mejía, Jessica Morales-Perdomo, José F. González-Maya.
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Citation:
Aguirre Sierra L, Zárrate-Charry DA, Lemus-Mejía L, Morales-Perdomo J, González-Maya JF (2022) Not only range, but quality: human influence and protected areas within the distribution of mammal species subject to use in the Department of Cundinamarca, Colombia. Nature Conservation 48: 57-81. https://doi.org/10.3897/natureconservation.48.77722
|
Mammal conservation in transformed landscapes depends heavily on the role of protected areas, especially for species used by local communities both within and around these areas. We evaluated the level of representation and the magnitude of the influence of humans, via human footprint, across the range of mammals used by local communities in the Department of Cundinamarca, Colombia. We emphasised the differences of the human influence at a department scale and inside Protected Areas (PA). The definition of species used by local communities refers to using a resource for its economic, religious and/or traditional value. Specifically, we addressed whether there is a difference between the magnitude of human influence inside and outside the PAs and if the impact is greater on threatened species, species with greater or lesser representation or according to their use. We found 43 species subject to use in our analysis, with low values of representation when compared with global targets (X̄ ± CD = 10.69% ± 4.99) and with high values of vulnerability, based on the mean value of the Spatial Human Footprint Index (HSFI) (57 ± 2.74). We found a difference of 10.72 points between the average HSFI of the Department and that of the PAs (X̄ ± CD = 10.73 ± 5.98%). This shows that the status of each species’ habitats is less impacted by human activities within PAs and that the conservation areas for all species depend largely on their presence in largely transformed landscapes. Although this seems an expected outcome, the Department of Cundinamarca is one of the less represented on PAs at a national level and has suffered from severe fragmentation; thus, our results highlight the need for improving and expanding the current PA system as most species, especially those subject to use, will depend on their existence for their conservation on the long run.
Andes, human footprint, Protected Areas, species modelling, species range
Mammals are one of the main groups widely used to assess landscapes and ecosystems’ ecological integrity and health in different parts of the world (
Even when mammal species provide a diversity of ecosystem services, they are one of the most threatened taxonomic groups globally due to the loss of their habitat, overexploitation, climate change among others (
Along with the many strategies for mammal conservation, various management actions have been designed, ranging from conservation plans (
Colombia is considered the sixth country with the highest mammal richness worldwide, with about 530 species (
This trend, associated with the increase in biodiversity loss stressors, generates an urgency for the conservation and management of species and their habitats, especially those subject to direct use (
Human Footprint and Protected areas in Cundinamarca A representation of the Human Spatial Footprint Index and B location of Protected Areas in the Department of Cundinamarca, Colombia. PA categories are based on the national classification.
Here, we evaluated the representation of mammals in PAs and the magnitude of the human influence over the range of mammal species subject to use in the Cundinamarca Department and whether this influence is less significant within PAs. For this purpose, we developed three specific objectives: i) to analyse the representation of mammal species subject to use within the current PAs system, ii) to evaluate the magnitude of human influence, using the Human Spatial Footprint Index (HSFI) approach, across the range of all mammals subject to use inside and outside PAs and iii) to identify differences in the magnitude of human influence according to representation and different level of threat.
The study area comprised the Cundinamarca Department (political division homologous to states), located in central Colombia, in the Andean Region (Fig.
In our study, we analysed the current human influence within the potential distribution range of mammal species used by local communities. The definition of species used by local communities refers to using a resource for economic, religious and traditional values governed by social, cultural and economic trends (
To secure a representative sample size, we defined the number of interviews for each locality according to the extension of each municipality and the human population census for 2018 (
We then categorised each mammal species according to four use categories: Food, defined as any direct consumption of a mammal; Pet/Traffic, defined as any report of direct use as a pet or subject to illegal traffic for multiple purposes; Control, defined as those species subject to retaliatory killing, usually due to previous conflict or considered as a “pest” and; Subproducts, defined as those species used whole or their parts for the production of a secondary product (
We estimated representation as the percentage of potential distribution, or range extension, of a species that is currently protected or included by existing PAs (
To evaluate the human influence over each mammal species subject to use, we used the most updated Human Spatial Footprint Index (HSFI) for the country with an accuracy of 300 m2 (
All geographic analyses were performed using ArcGIS 10.x (
We identified 43 species subject to use for the Department, mostly associated with direct use, but with some others related to cultural and religious uses (Table
Mammals subject to use identified for the Department of Cundinamarca, Colombia, including the type of use reported.
Order | Species | Common name | IUCN Cat. | Use reported | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Food | Pet/ Traffic | Control | Subproducts | ||||
Artiodactyla | Mazama rufina | Dwarf red brocket | VU | X | X | X | |
Pecari tajacu | Collared peccary | LC | X | X | X | X | |
Carnivora | Cerdocyon thous | Crab-eating fox | LC | X | |||
Eira barbara | Tayra | LC | X | X | |||
Herpailurus yagouaroundi | Yaguarundi | LC | X | X | |||
Leopardus pardalis | Ocelot | LC | X | X | |||
Leopardus tigrinus | Oncilla | VU | X | X | |||
Leopardus wiedii | Margay | NT | X | X | |||
Lontra longicaudis | Neotropical otter | NT | X | X | |||
Mustela frenata | Long-tailed weasel | LC | X | ||||
Nasua nasua | South American coati | LC | X | X | X | X | |
Nasuella olivacea | Western mountain coati | NT | X | X | X | ||
Panthera onca | Jaguar | NT | X | X | X | X | |
Potos flavus | Kinkajou | LC | X | X | X | ||
Procyon cancrivorus | Crab-eating raccoon | LC | X | X | |||
Puma concolor | Puma | LC | X | X | X | ||
Tremarctos ornatus | Spectacled bear | VU | X | X | X | ||
Urocyon cinereoargenteus | Grey fox | LC | X | X | X | ||
Chiroptera | Desmodus rotundus | Vampire bat | LC | X | X | ||
Myotis nigricans | LC | X | |||||
Cingulata | Dasypus novemcinctus | Nine-banded armadillo | LC | X | X | X | |
Cabassous centralis | Naked-tailed armadillo | LC | X | X | |||
Didelphimorphia | Caluromys lanatus | Brown-eared woolly opossum | LC | X | |||
Chironectes minimus | Water opossum | LC | X | ||||
Didelphis marsupialis | Common opossum | LC | X | X | X | ||
Pilosa | Bradypus variegatus | Three-toed sloth | LC | X | X | X | |
Choloepus hoffmanni | Hoffmann´s two-toed sloth | LC | X | X | |||
Myrmecophaga tridactyla | Giant anteater | VU | X | X | X | X | |
Tamandua mexicana | Northern tamandua | LC | X | X | |||
Tamandua tetradactyla | Southern tamandua | LC | X | X | |||
Primates | Alouatta seniculus | Colombian red howler monkey | LC | X | X | ||
Aotus griseimembra | Grey-handed night monkey | VU | X | X | |||
Ateles belzebuth | White-bellied spider monkey | EN | X | X | |||
Lagothrix lagotricha | Common woolly monkey | VU | X | X | X | X | |
Saguinus leucopus | Silvery-brown tamarin | EN | X | ||||
Saimiri sciureus | Guianan squirrel monkey | LC | X | ||||
Sapajus apella | Black-capped capuchin | LC | X | X | |||
Rodentia | Cavia aperea | Brazilian guinea pig | LC | X | |||
Cuniculus paca | Agouti | LC | X | X | |||
Cuniculus taczanowskii | Mountain paca | NT | X | X | |||
Dasyprocta fuliginosa | Black agouti | LC | X | ||||
Dasyprocta punctata | Central American agouti | LC | X | ||||
Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris | Capybara | LC | X | X | X | X |
Distribution of species richness showed an important concentration of species for the lowlands bordering the Magdalena River, on the western flank of the eastern range of the Andes (Fig.
Mammal species richness. Potential distribution of species richness of mammals subject to use in the Department of Cundinamarca, Colombia, with a resolution of 1 km.
Distribution and representation of mammals in PAs A Total distribution and area under Protected Areas values and B representation (%) within PAs for all mammal species subject to use in the Department of Cundinamarca, Colombia.
In terms of species under any risk category, mean representation was significantly lower than for the non-threatened species (69.91 vs. 46.19%; W = 105.00, p = 0.026). Of these species, the Jaguar (Panthera onca) has the lowest representation for the Department (4.64%). The mean value (± SD) of the Human Spatial Footprint Index (HSFI) for the distribution areas of all species was 57.08 (± 2.74). This is a medium value, but it is very close to values considered high according to the HSFI, which are those over 60. We found very few species with areas with HSFI values lower than 40, which means that there are no areas that could be considered with low footprint values (Fig.
Mean Human Spatial Footprint Index within mammal ranges. Distribution and mean value of the Human Spatial Footprint Index (HSFI) for mammal species subject to use within the Department of Cundinamarca, Colombia.
Although for most of the Department of Cundinamarca, HSFI values are high or medium, within the PAs, the values are lower, which is evident in PAs such as Chingaza National Natural Park, the Cuchillas Negra and Guanaque and Cuchilla San Cayetano Integrated Management Regional Districts and the multiple protective forest reserves in the areas near Chingaza. In order to demonstrate whether PAs are ensuring habitat quality within the distribution of mammal species subject to use, we compared mean values of the HSFI of the distribution of the species in unprotected areas of the Cundinamarca Department and the mean value within all PAs. We found statistically significant differences (T = 11.74, p < 0.01) where almost all species have higher HSFI values throughout the Department than in PAs. On average, there is a difference of 10.72 points between the average HSFI of the Department and that of the PAs (Mean ± SD = 10.73 ± 5.98%). This shows that the state of the species’ habitats is less impacted by human activities within PAs and that the conservation areas of most species depend, to a large extent, on them (Fig.
Human Spatial Footprint Index in and out of PAs. Comparison of the mean values of the Human Spatial Footprint Index of the distribution areas of the mammals subject to use inside and outside the PAs of the Department of Cundinamarca, Colombia.
Finally, when including the type of use and considering the differential pressure that different types of uses represent for each species, we found slight differences between representation and the level of human intervention on species ranges both in the whole Department and only inside PAs (Fig.
Comparison between mammal and use and no-use between different use types and for Human Spatial Footprint Index overall for the Department and within protected areas and for representation for the Department of Cundinamarca, Colombia. * Indicates significant differences.
Comparison | Type of use | Variable | H | p |
---|---|---|---|---|
Use / No use | Consumption | Representation | 0.555 | 0.460 |
HSFI Department | 0.097 | 0.767 | ||
HSFI in PA | 0.059 | 0.824 | ||
Control | Representation | 0.099 | 0.765 | |
HSFI Department | 1.733 | 0.188 | ||
HSFI in PA | 0.002 | 0.960 | ||
Pet/traffic | Representation | 0.200 | 0.654 | |
HSFI Department | 3.959 | 0.040* | ||
HSFI in PA | 5.936 | 0.014* | ||
Subproducts | Representation | 0.656 | 0.421 | |
HSFI Department | 0.002 | 0.9587 | ||
HSFI in PA | 0.153 | 0.697 | ||
Between uses | Consumption vs. Control vs. Pet/traffic vs. Subproducts | Representation | 0.490 | 0.921 |
HSFI in PA | 1.753 | 0.624 | ||
HSFI Department | 1.073 | 0.783 |
Human Spatial Footprint Index and representation for different species uses. Overall Human Spatial Footprint Index in the Department and within PAs compared with species subject to different types of uses in the Department of Cundinamarca, Colombia. Percentage of representation is on the secondary Y-axis.
With its wide elevation gradient and mountainous topography, Cundinamarca harbours a wide variety of ecosystems and biodiversity (
Most of the species distribution and the correspondent richness values respond to the heterogeneity of the transition zone between the Andes and the lowlands of the inter-Andean valleys of the Magdalena River and the Llanos, both located in the same area of the transformation front and the area where the highest HSFI values are located (
More than half of the species presented in the analysis have a representation value lower than 10%, with most of their ranges located outside PAs; therefore, depending to a large extent on actions and management that takes place in private lands, a situation that has been seen before in mammal species, such as jaguar and puma (
Natural cover remnants with good quality and with considerable size in the Department are scarce and poorly represented in PAs, as in most of the Andean Region (
All species subject to use in the Department have a mean value of human influence over their entire distribution higher than 50, which is of particular concern since this value is well over the threshold of high intervention according to the Index (
Human activities have irreparably affected species habitats and the functioning of ecosystems globally, a dynamic that is becoming increasingly pronounced with catastrophic effects for biodiversity (
Our results make evident that the representation of mammal species within the existing PAs is below the globally defined thresholds and well below the requirements that most species may have (
This work is part of the Project “Distribución histórica, actual y futura de mamíferos y sus relaciones e importancia sociocultural en el departamento de Cundinamarca: herramientas de planificación de conservación” funded by the Convocatoria 829-2018 Proyectos de I+D para el desarrollo tecnológico base biológica-Cundinamarca from the Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación of Colombia, executed by Corporación Universitaria Minuto de Dios – UNIMINUTO and Proyecto de Conservación de Aguas y Tierras - ProCAT Colombia. We thank the supervisors at MINCIENCIAS and UNIMINUTO and to ProCAT Colombia staff for their support for the development of this project. Thanks to J. Schipper for improving the language. Additionally, we thank the editor and three anonymous reviewers for their comments that significantly improved the manuscript.