This study was carried out in the municipality of Ouahigouya where the Gourga forest is geographically located at 13.35°N, 2.30°W. This private Gourga forest covers an area of 28 ha (Fig. 1). The Gourga forest is located in the Sudano-sahelian zone, characterized by a short rainy season from June to October (4–5 months) and a long dry season (7–8 months) Dipama (2010). Average annual rainfall varies from 600 to 900 mm, and average monthly temperatures vary from 20 to 30 °C. The vegetation is characterized by desert and Sahelian species and the common species encountered are Vachellia seyal Delile, Combretum glutinosum Perr. ex DC., Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile, Cassia sieberiana DC., Combretum micranthum G.Don, and Combretum nigricans Lepr. ex Guill. & Perr. (Sambaré et al. 2011) including Andropogon gayanus Kunth and Zornia glochidiata Rchb. ex DC., which are the representative grasses (Maisharou 2014). Pressure on land use is extremely high in this area due to intensive livestock production. Farming methods are still traditional and are mainly food crops, predominantly sorghum and millet. Soils are generally degraded in the study area (Fig. 2a). Therefore, some traditional agricultural practices such as semi-circular dikes and zaï are undertaken by farmers for soil restoration and fertilization before planting. Rainfall irregularities, as well as deforestation and livestock grazing, lead to vegetation loss and land degradation, which are the main challenges for sustainable development in the region. The Gourga forest was created in 1980 and owned by Mr. Yacouba SAWADOGO, a farmer and right livelihood award winner known as “the man who stopped the desert”. The overall objective of creating the forest was to build local resilience to the adverse impacts of climate change experienced in the drought 1970s period in the Sahel, resulting in the loss of many woody species. The ecological landscape of the forest is completely different to its communal areas (Fig. 2b).

Figure 1.

Location of the study area.

Figure 2.

Overview of the study area during data collection period (a) communal area and (b) Gourga forest.

Floristic data were collected in 26 individual plots equally distributed in two land use types, including the Gourga forest, which is privately owned, and the communal areas used as control areas in the framework of this study. In both areas main plots of individual surface of 900 m² (30 m × 30 m) were installed for the inventory of woody species (Nacoulma et al. 2011; Samandoulgou et al. 2019). Within each main plot, a subplot of 100 m² (10 m × 10 m) was installed for the inventory of herbaceous species. The inventory consisted of systematic counting and listing of all plant species present in each specific plot. All species were directly recorded with their scientific names. For species unidentified on the field, representative samples were collected and brought to the Laboratory of Plant Biology and Ecology of Université Joseph KI-ZERBO for identification. All species were listed using the nomenclatures of Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) IV and Kyalangalilwa et al. (2013).

Social data related to private forest was collected in three nearest villages (Gourga, Saye, and Somiaga) to the Gourga forest. Based on their proximity and daily interaction with the forest, people living close to it could probably provide better information on its ecosystem services that they benefited from (N’Da et al. 2008; Oldekop et al. 2015). On this point, the surveys mainly targeted men, who according to social practices are the only landowners (Coulibaly-Lingani et al. 2009). Individual semi-structured interviews were performed with the Gourga forest owner and landowners from three different villages (Ouédraogo et al. 2020). In total, 63 landowners aged from 24 to 70 with 21 landowners per sampled village were interviewed. An interview was conducted with the Gourga forest owner (Mr. Yacouba SAWADOGO) to collect data on the benefits and constraints of forest management. For landowners, the main information collected concerned their perception of the key ecosystem services provided by the Gourga forest, their willingness to establish a private forest and related main constraints, as well as their recommendations to boost the private forest sector in Burkina Faso.

Based on the barriers to private land conservation perceived by the communities, a stakeholder’s consultative workshop was convened in the municipality of Ouahigouya using the qualitative Delphi method (Peter et al. 2021). The workshop aimed to bring together various stakeholders and determine a private land conservation model suitable to the national context. Indeed, the workshop gathered conservation-based NGOs, landowners, researchers from biodiversity areas, and experts from land and natural resource managing government institutions. The main question of the workshop was “what is the appropriate private land conservation model for Burkina Faso and its implementation measures?” In addition, participants were asked to rate the recommendations formulated by the communities and express their insights on conservation on private land. Recommendations were scored on a four-point scale (0–3), which correspond to: 1 = very important; 2 = less important and 3 = not important.

The ecological data were synthesized to constitute a floristic database arranged according to the taxonomic hierarchy (family, genus, and species). Plant diversity was described at family and species levels. At family level, the relative diversity of family (RDF) was calculated for each family in both land use types using equation 1.

RDF = (number of species in a family / total number of species) × 100 (1)

At species level, the common metrics widely used for assessing plant community diversity were calculated: species richness (SR), mean species richness per plot (MSR), Shannon index (H) and Pielou index (E) (Gnoumou et al. 2011; Bondé et al. 2013). SR is estimated by the total number of species recorded in an area. Hence, it refers to the number of taxa found in an area, without assessing their frequency or abundance. Therefore, it is not a meaningful measure for comparing community diversity. For this reason, H and E, which consider both the relative abundance of species and the total specific richness, are used to characterize the floristic diversity of environments. H quantifies the heterogeneity of the specific diversity of an environment, while E evaluates the equitability of all individuals among all species in the environment. PC-ORD 6.0.4 was used to calculate the number of species per plot, Shannon’s diversity and Pielou’s equitability indices. To assess the impact of land use on the species diversity, a non-parametric test (Wilcoxon test) at the 5% threshold was performed for each diversity index. For social data, we performed a generalized linear model (GLM) with Poisson error distribution to compare counting data (number of threats and number of ecosystem services) according to respondent age and locality (distance to the studied private forest). All statistical tests were generated using R software 4.0.3.

The stakeholders scored the recommendations formulated by the landholders as a way to motivate them to involve conservation and prioritized them following their importance. Further on, participants discussed the private land conservation model suitable for the socio-economic context of the country and agreed on its implementation measures. Graphical representation of the degree of consensus per recommendation was generated.

In the whole study area, the surveys revealed a floristic richness of 217 herbaceous and woody species. Of these, the flora of the Gourga counted for 132 species (Appendix 1) whilst the communal areas counted for 85 species (Appendix 2). In general, the GF recorded higher values of relative diversity for all species families (Fig. 3). Families with one species (i.e., family relative diversity = 0.46%) are represented by other in the Fig. 3. The mean species richness and Shannon index based on wood species were significantly influenced by land use with higher values in the GF (Table 1). However, for the Pielou equitability index values, no difference was observed between the Gourga forest and the communal areas.

Figure 3.

Relative diversity of families according to land use.

By cross checking the species surveyed in the forest with the red list of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the list of species under special protection in Burkina Faso, it was possible to establish the list of both threatened and those highly protected in Burkina Faso (Table 2). Overall, the finding revealed 46 woody species with special status according to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in the study area. 26 of them were only found in the Gourga Forest and 2 in the communal areas whilst 18 species were common to both areas. Among these species, 41 were in the category of least concern (LC), one specie is near threatened (Dalbergia melanoxylon Guill. & Perr.) and two are threatened species (Adansonia digitata L. and Vitellaria paradoxa C. F. Gaertn.). Furthermore, the study identified 12 woody species with special protection status in Burkina Faso with 11 species growing in the Gourga forest and 1 species in communal areas.

General linear model (GLM) showed that there was no significant relationship between the respondents’ location and age on the constraints to private forests forest establishment. Respondents identified 11 key constraints preventing them from establishing their own forests (Fig. 5). Findings revealed that land scarcity and lack of financial resources were the constraints most perceived by the communities. Despite these constraints, 100% of the surveyed landowners expressed a willingness to establish their own private forests. Therefore, they suggested 11 recommendations to motivate private landowners to engage in biodiversity conservation. These recommendations include financial support, capacity building, trees, and seedling, working materials, land security, parcel of land, water, sensitization, monitoring, conservation agreements, and promotion of green jobs (Fig. 6).

Figure 5.

Communities’ perception on private forest establishment constraints.

Figure 6.

Stakeholder ranking of private land conservation enforcement measures.

The stakeholders’ workshop revealed the social acceptability of private land conservation by different stakeholders. The findings showed that the stakeholders had different perceptions of the eleven recommendations addressed by landowners. Thus, upon deep discussions on these recommendations, the stakeholders ranked them based on their efficiency (Fig. 6). Results indicated that stakeholders perceived that land tenure security and landowners’ awareness raising as key pathways to promote private land conservation in Burkina Faso. Furthermore, all stakeholders viewed the provision of working materials such as barrows, grating, conservation agreements between landholders and decision makers, and water as very pressing for promoting private land conservation. Nevertheless, the participants mentioned financial support as a more or less important measure.

The stakeholders, upon discussing the recommendations formulated by the landowners, indicated that the provision of financial resources in advance is not necessary for the promotion of private land conservation. Nevertheless, they proposed the development of some financial incentive instruments that could motivate landowners to engage in conservation programs. In this respect, all stakeholders identified the payment for ecosystem services as a conservation scheme.

Stakeholders stressed that the legal framework for land management is not suitable for the national social context. They reported that current land legislation lacks the capacity to secure privately-owned lands. However, the workshop identified a few measures that could support the integration of privately-owned lands in biodiversity conservation strategies. These measures include legal security of privately-owned land and easing regulations on the exploitation of natural resources in private forests.

The survey findings highlighted a significant floristic richness of the Gourga forest compared to the communal areas. This high species richness of the Gourga forest and the other diversity indexes could be linked to the sustainable land management practices and daily monitoring actions by the forest owner. These practices include semi-circular dikes, zai plantation pits, stone/vegetation dikes, composting, farmer-assisted natural regeneration, small-scale dams, stone cordons, and village irrigation systems. The forest also is roughly sheltered from human activities. These findings corroborate those observed by Bondé et al. (2013), who showed that protected areas are subject to less anthropogenic pressure than fallow lands which occur most of the time on communal areas and explain therefore the species richness of protected areas.

By way of contrast, the findings highlighted a low floristic diversity in the communal areas. This low species richness may be linked to anthropogenic actions combined with grazing activities, which are highly developed in the area. These findings support those of Soulama et al. (2015) who reported that vegetation in unprotected areas (fallows, grazing areas) is the most degraded due to exacerbation of anthropogenic pressure. In similar research, Kouassi et al. (2012) observed a similar trend in Côte d’Ivoire where work proved that savannah formations are the most affected by anthropogenic activities.

The largest families in both sites were the Fabaceae with 27% of forest species and 37% of communal area species and the Combretaceae with 20% of forest species and 11% of communal area species. This high prevalence of these families could be explained by the resilience capacity of these species. The findings are in line with those reported by Ouédraogo et al. (2020) who found in a similar study the prevalence of those two families in eastern Burkina Faso. This could be linked by their capacity to resist ecological and human constraints as highlighted by Bognounou et al. (2009) and Savadogo et al. (2016). Indeed, their findings indicated that these species are resilient to water stress and rainfall deficiency.

The GLM analysis showed that there was no significant difference between both age and distance on the respondents’ perception of the forest ecosystem services. Therefore, respondents from all age groups and villages regardless of distance perceive the ecosystem services of the forest. This robust perception of the ecosystem services of the forest could be related to the fact that both old and young people nowadays have a better awareness of the importance of natural resources on their livelihoods and well-being. The finding revealed that the Gourga forest supports the riparian communities with eighteen goods and services. These benefits refer to the classification provided by the (Millennium Environmental Assessment 2005) which recognized four main categories of ecosystem services (provisioning, regulating, supporting and cultural) with the prevalence of provisioning service. Therefore, of the total provided ecosystem services, the provisioning services were more perceived by the respondents. These findings support those observed by the Ouédraogo et al. (2020). Indeed, in their work on local people’s perceptions of ecosystem services in PAs in eastern Burkina Faso, they found that people living around a PA were familiar with these four categories of ecosystem services. Despite the private ownership of the Gourga forest, the communities have recognized its range of services and benefits. Indeed, 79.36% of the respondents recognized the medicinal value of the forest whilst of them 36% indicated that the forest produces fruits. These results imply that private land conservation could be a complementary approach to improve the community’s livelihood through its multiple benefits similar to those of a public forest. Further on, 26.99% of the respondents indicated that the forest contributes to the improvement of local rainfall while 23.8% of them think that it improves air purification. These findings show the potential of the forest to mitigate climate change effects. This implies that private land conservation could be an effective approach to support communities’ resilience in a world threatened by climate change impact (Raymond et al. 2015).

During social surveys, people suggested recommendations to promote private land conservation in Burkina Faso. Following the workshop, the stakeholders agreed on individual private land conservation as the appropriate model. For this purpose, the stakeholders prioritized the recommendations made by the populations according to their level of importance. The workshop insights show that securing land tenure and sensitizing landowners are more urgent than financial support. The results of the workshop are in line with the conclusions of Silva et al. (2021) who in a very recent study in Brazil underlined the crucial role of land tenure security in the promotion of private forestry. Indeed, the applicable land tenure laws do not guarantee sustainable investments on private land. As a follow-up to the stakeholders’ insights on sustainable private land conservation in Burkina Faso, we suggest the further promotion of the tripartite contracts between landowners, the central government and any local government hosting a private forest.

Further, to ensure that private forests are conserved in the long term, stakeholders highlighted the need for conservation agreements between landowners and the government. In particular, stakeholders stressed that land security alone does not guarantee the perpetuity of conservation activities on the privately-owned land. The finding supported the conclusions of the work of Kamal et al. (2015) who found that conservation agreements are effective legal instruments under which, ownership of the land (habisus) is conferred to a legal entity or government agency, while use rights (fructus and usus) revert to the landowner by right. We assume that this approach could serve as a window for private forestry in Burkina Faso.

No conflict of interest was declared.

No ethical statement was reported.

This work was funded by International climate initiative (IKI) of the German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Nuclear Safety and Consumer Protection (Grant No.: 17_IV _072_West Africa_IPBES Support). Ministry of Environment of Burkina Faso funded the workshop organization through the project “Plan d’Investissement Forestier (PIF)”.

Karafa Bognini as the main author, he conceptualized the work, collected data and prepare a first draft of this paper. Loyapin Bondé as part of the supervision team, designed the methodology and reviewed and edited this paper. Sié Sylvestre Da, Abisha Mapendembe supervised the research implementation. Roch Yao Gnabeli was the main supervisor during data collection.

Karafa Bognini https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3243-3957

Loyapin Bondé https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9399-8644

Sié Sylvestre Da https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8284-4589

All of the data that support the findings of this study are available in the main text.