Review Article |
Corresponding author: Neil D'Cruze ( neildcruze@worldanimalprotection.org ) Academic editor: Enrico Di Minin
© 2020 Neil D'Cruze, Délagnon Assou, Emma Coulthard, John Norrey, David Megson, David W. Macdonald, Lauren A. Harrington, Delphine Ronfot, Gabriel H. Segniagbeto, Mark Auliya.
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Citation:
D'Cruze N, Assou D, Coulthard E, Norrey J, Megson D, Macdonald DW, Harrington LA, Ronfot D, Segniagbeto GH, Auliya M (2020) Snake oil and pangolin scales: insights into wild animal use at “Marché des Fétiches” traditional medicine market, Togo. Nature Conservation 39: 45-71. https://doi.org/10.3897/natureconservation.39.47879
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Traditional medicine beliefs are culturally important in some West African communities, where there is a thriving domestic consumer demand for wild animal derivatives. Yet, such practices can threaten the conservation of wild populations and negatively impact animal welfare. To identify those species most likely to be affected, we investigated wildlife derivative trade at the largest fetish market of West Africa in Togo. Specifically, we asked what wild animals or animal products were most profitable, which wild animals were perceived by vendors to have increased most in rarity and what they were used for. A key question was whether vendors also sold plant-based alternatives. Vendors provided 36 local animal names, from which we inferred an estimated 281 species. Thirteen percent of these inferred species are categorised on the IUCN Red List as threatened (n = 35); 26% are declining (n = 72). The most commonly cited most profitable wildlife derivatives were “Pangolin” and “Python”; the most commonly cited most profitable live wild animal was “Chameleon”. Overall, wildlife use was predominantly spiritual rather than medicinal. Plant-based alternatives were available, but comprised < 40% of sales and appeared to be considered less important or less useful than wild animal products. The legal status of this domestic trade in Togo is unclear given the existence of potentially conflicting national legislation. In addition to further research focused on the actual impacts on populations and individuals of the species indicated, socio-economic importance of this trade, societal pressures driving consumer demand and an assessment of the feasibility of sustainable plant-based alternatives is warranted.
Animal Welfare, Conservation, Phataginus tricuspis, Python regius, Wildlife Trade
For millennia, traditional healers have used wildlife with the intention of maintaining human well-being and to treat, diagnose or prevent sickness, based on both observable physical symptoms or perceived supernatural forces (
Traditional medicine and fetish beliefs have been identified as being important for the culture of African people, especially in the central (
When carried out unsustainably, the use of wildlife as traditional medicine, whether used legally or illegally, can threaten the conservation of wild populations through biodiversity loss and species loss (
One of the difficulties in tackling potentially unsustainable wildlife trade is identifying those species that are most at risk and thus warrant intervention. In this regard, market surveys can be useful where wildlife and their derivatives are sold (
The focus of our study was the traditional medicine market, the “Marché des Fétiches”, in Lomé, the capital city of Togo. Through socio-economic questionnaires, we aimed to gain insight into the diversity of species sold and their commercial and medicinal value. In particular, we sought to identify: (1) those species perceived to be most commercially profitable by traders (i.e. those that sold for most money), both in terms of live animals and their derivatives; (2) those species deemed to have increased most in rarity; and (3) initial information regarding the vendors’ knowledge of any herbal alternatives to these wildlife-based derivatives. Our objective was to identify potential conservation threats and welfare concerns, to provide preliminary information on the nature of consumer demand and the current availability of plant-based alternatives.
The “Marché des Fétiches” is situated in Akodessewa in the east of Lomé, the capital city of Togo (
Interviews were conducted by four local field staff asking a set of predetermined questions that included open-ended, closed and multiple-choice questions (see Appendix
Specifically, vendors were asked to identify and rank the 10 wild animals (using local common names and excluding invertebrates) that they currently considered to be the most profitable (with wildlife body parts and live animals considered separately) and the 10 wild animals that they considered to have most increased in rarity (and therefore inferred reduced availability) over the past five years. Vendors were also asked to provide additional information including the wildlife body parts sold, their minimum and maximum price, estimated number of units sold (in the last year, last five years and last 10 years) and their intended medicinal / spiritual purpose. Interviews also involved additional questions focused on “Python” (Python spp.) and “Pangolin” (Manidae spp.) as these common names were most commonly cited as being the most profitable wildlife species sold as derivatives at the market following initial questions (see Appendix
The same vendors were also asked questions related to the sale of plants as traditional medicine (see Appendix
For both wildlife and plants, local common names provided by vendors in Ewe and Fon were translated into English. A list of inferred species and their respective scientific names were assigned to each common name based on the documented presence of wild populations in Togo, according to
We used descriptive statistics to describe patterns and trends in the data to determine if the frequency of species and type of wildlife product, cited as being the most profitable body part, were distributed similarly. Statistical analysis was carried out using R statistical software version 3.4.1 (
Three male and two female vendors, whose ages ranged from 17 and 45 years, participated in our study. Participants consisted of both married and single individuals from the Fon and Watchi tribes who lived in households with between two and six people, with between zero and six children. All participants were educated to primary school level, all were animists and were originally from Benin (Abomey), having moved to Lomé, Togo. All participants stated that they used traditional medicine as their main form of income (actively trading between two and 30 years) with an estimated income of between 1,644 USD and 20,552 USD per year.
Overall, during our questionnaire, participants used 36 distinct different common names to refer to the wildlife species traded (Fig.
Word cloud of a the cited common names provided by vendors when asked to list the most profitable wildlife derivatives, most profitable live wild animals and those species that have most increased in rarity (n = 130 total responses) and b the cited purposes provided by vendors when asked to list the most profitable wildlife derivatives, most profitable live wild animals and those species that have most increased in rarity (n = 117 total responses). Size of text is proportional to frequency of words in interviews. Frequency reflects both the number of vendors using the word and the number of times the word was used by the vendor.
Across all species and product types, at the time of asking, items sold for between 0.26 USD (for a single “Chameleon” body part) and 765 USD [for a “Hippopotamus” head (Hippopotamus amphibius)] and the number of items sold per vendor for each product ranged between 10 [for individual live “Cobra” (Elapidae), “Monitor lizard” (Varanidae), “Python” and “Viper”] and 600 items (for live “Chameleon”) (Suppl. material
The two most commonly cited “most profitable wildlife derivatives” originated from “Pangolin” (four of the five vendors interviewed) and “Python” (four vendors), followed by “Lion” (three vendors), “Owl” (Strigidae spp.) (three vendors) and “Viper” (three vendors) (Fig.
Frequency of species described by respondents as having the most profitable derivatives, most profitable as a live animal and species they considered to have most increased in rarity.
Overall, during our questionnaire, participants used 16 different common names to refer to the plants sold as traditional medicine (Suppl. material
Overall, we estimate that the 36 distinct common names potentially refer to at least 281 different extant species in Togo, including 49 amphibians (Amphibia), 59 birds (Aves), 140 mammals (Mammalia) and 33 reptiles (Reptilia) (assuming that a common name could refer to multiple species in the same taxa, for example, order, family or genus) (Suppl. material
With regards to their population status, eight inferred species have wild populations considered to be increasing, 80 that are stable, 72 that are decreasing and 121 of unknown population status (Appendix
A total of eight of the ten different stated pangolin body parts are used for medicinal purposes according to the vendors who participated in this study (Fig.
Frequency of cited purpose and body part used for the two focal species “Pangolin” and “Python” with information on average prices in USD provided in the blue cells. Blank cells refer to body parts that were mentioned by vendors but no price information was provided. Shading of the blue cells reflects frequency with darker blue being more frequent.
Each of the five vendors reported a different pangolin body part used for spiritual purposes: the “entire animal”, “foot”, “head”, “sex organ” or “tongue” (Fig.
Word cloud of the cited medicinal and spiritual purposes of pangolin (n = 19 total responses) a and python (n = 28 total responses) b provided by vendors. Size of text is proportional to frequency of words in interviews. Frequency reflects both the number of vendors using the word and the number of times the word was used by the vendor.
With regards to reported source country, two of the vendors stated that they source pangolin derivatives from within Togo, all of the vendors stated that they source pangolin derivatives from Benin, one of the vendors stated that they source them from Ghana and four of the vendors stated that they source them from Nigeria. Three vendors stated that they source pangolin derivatives directly from hunters and three that they source them from middlemen. On average, vendors stated that they sold the equivalent of 30 pangolins over the last year, 137 over the last five years and 281 over the last 10 years. The mean availability score of pangolins over the last five years was 4.5 with three of the vendors stating that there were “quite a lot less” pangolin available compared to five years previous. Vendors identified four different local common names (“Kangao”, “Midohoungbe”, “Olikpekpe” and “Tchechema”) with reference to plant species that could be sold in place of pangolin derivatives for medicinal and/or spiritual purposes (Suppl. material
All of the 12 different stated python body parts are used for medicinal purposes, according to the vendors who participated in this study (Fig.
A total of six of the 12 different python body parts are used for spiritual purposes, according to the vendors who participated in this study (Fig.
One of the five vendors stated that they do not sell pythons, because it is considered as a sacred animal by the “Pedah” ethnic group. The four vendors that did sell pythons reported that they sourced them from within Togo, from Benin and from Nigeria. One of these four vendors also stated that they source pythons from Ghana. On average, vendors reported that they have sold the equivalent of 109 pythons over the last year, 338 over the last five years and 675 over the last 10 years. The mean availability score of pythons over the last five years was 4.5 with two vendors stating that there were “quite a few less” and two that there were “quite a lot less” available compared to five years previously. Vendors identified four different local common names (“Akouema”, “Canabis”, Djokotche” and “Zodi”) with reference to plant species that could be sold in place of python derivatives for medicinal and/or spiritual purposes.
A summary of the cost per body part, sources (both from where and from whom), sales and availability scores of the two focal species are shown in Figure
Our study confirmed that a wide variety of live wild animals and their derivatives are being sold at the “Marché des Fétiches” in Togo (Figs
A Entrance to the “Marché des Fétiches”, Akodessewa, Lomé, Togo B African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus) intended for commercial sale C West African slender-snouted crocodile (Mecistops cataphractus) intended for commercial sale D live vulture (Accipitridae sp., cf. Gypohierax angolensis, Palm nut vulture) intended for commercial sale, Togo, West Africa. Images A–D Neil D’Cruze / World Animal Protection.
Our findings also draw additional attention to the animal welfare concerns associated with this type of activity. During our visits to the market, we observed stalls with thousands of wild animal derivatives for sale, all of which would have suffered to some degree during capture, potential transport, onward sale and slaughter (
A Ball python heads (Python regius) intended for commercial sale B pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) intended for commercial sale C Ball python fat bodies / oil intended for commercial sale D live Ball python intended for commercial sale, Togo, West Africa. Images A–D Neil D’Cruze / World Animal Protection.
Although this market is promoted as a tourist attraction by domestic and international tour agencies, the legal status regarding this type of commercial trade activity in Togo is unclear, given the existence of a number of different and potentially conflicting pieces of domestic legislation (
“Pangolin” was identified as the most commercially viable wild animal derivative by vendors interviewed during our study. Its increased rarity was also suggested by two of the five vendors. This group of African and Asian scaly mammals is considered to be “the most heavily trafficked wild mammal in the world”, used predominantly as traditional medicine and food, but also in rituals, art and magic amongst communities across Africa (
All four African species [the “Endangered” White-bellied (Phataginus tricuspis) (
“Python” was identified as the second most commercially viable wild animal derivative by vendors interviewed during our study. Its perceived increased rarity was also stated by one of the five vendors. Two species of python are known to occur in Togo, the Northern African rock python (Python sebae) and the Ball python (Python regius) (
From a conservation perspective, the Northern African rock python has not been evaluated by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. However, this species is also not thought to be as widespread as they once were (
Our study confirms that a proportion of the vendors who sell wildlife derivatives at the “Marché des Fétiches” in Togo also sell plants as traditional medicine (Suppl. material
Establishing the impact of traditional medicine on wildlife is notoriously difficult (
A full inventory of the wild animal species being sold at the “Marché des Fétiches” was beyond the scope of this study. Similarly, although vendors provided samples upon request, it was not possible to identify any of the local plant species from the dried specimens available. As such, we acknowledge that our use of local names to infer the species sold by vendors does not provide a complete taxonomic account. Furthermore, our use of local names likely means that, in some cases, vendors may be referring to only one particular species that is not threatened by extinction or vice versa. However, taxonomic inventories, based on direct observation, also have their limitations when considering the impact of traditional medicine on wildlife. For example, many traders sell individual bones or pieces of skin, making it impossible to determine how many individual animals are being traded in a particular market (
The use of wild animals as traditional medicine involves multiple overlapping anthropological, ecological and behavioural aspects with a complexity that should not be underestimated (
In addition to increased clarity regarding the domestic legislation and associated penalties (e.g.
During our survey, vendors stated that the majority of derivatives were used for spiritual use rather than medical purposes, with the most frequently cited benefit of using animals being to acquire “protection” (Fig.
We wish to thank all of the vendors and Mark Dako (a local guide) at the “Marche des Fétiches” for their participation and patience during our study. We also thank all of the Masters students from the Ecology and Wildlife Management programme, from the Laboratory of Ecology and Ecotoxiology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lomé (Kossivi Inès Akagankou, Afi Florence Konko and Ayaovi Doh Agomedje-Hounfodji) who helped us to conduct the survey. Finally, we sincerely thank Agbo-Zegue NGO for providing necessary logistics for the study. Mark Auliya and Lauren Harrington received a grant from World Animal Protection to carry out this research.
Summary of respondent questions relating to wildlife derivative sales.
Species | Mean min price per item USD (Range) | Mean max price USD (Range) | Total number of items sold last year (Range) | Most frequent purpose | Body part sold | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
All Parts | Bile | Bones | Feathers | Foot | Head | Live animal | Scales | Skin | Teeth | Toes | |||||
Antelope | 14.73 (10.2-17) | 14.73 (10.2-17) | 160 | Make drums | X | X | |||||||||
Baboon | 19.55 (2.55-51) | 36.55 (2.55-102) | Treat Elephantitus | X | X | X | |||||||||
Bats | 1.70 (0.85-2.55) | 1.70 (0.85-2.55) | Heart Conditions | X | |||||||||||
Big Cats | 86.98 (1.70-255) | 115.32 (1.70-204) | Fetish Objects | X | X | ||||||||||
Cane Rat | 7.86 (2.55-13.60) | 7.86 (2.55-13.60) | 115 35-40 | Against Witchcraft | X | X | |||||||||
Chameleon | 2.05 (0.26-4.25) | 2.05 (0.26-4.25) | 915 (35-600) | Good Luck Charm | X | X | |||||||||
Cobra | 4.76 (3.40-8.50) | 4.76 (3.40-8.50) | 280 (10-200) | Anti-Venom | X | X | |||||||||
Crocodile | 24.79 (0.85-68) | 33.29 0.85-68) | 70 (20-50) | Protect against drowning | X | X | X | X | |||||||
Eagle | 17.85 (2.55-42.50) | 17.85 (2.55-42.50) | Memory, treat ear infection, headaches | X | X | X | |||||||||
Elephant | 5.44 (1.70-13.60) | 5.44 (1.70-13.60) | Treat Elephantitus | X | X | X | |||||||||
Frogs | 0.34 | 0.34 | X | ||||||||||||
Hedgehog | 4.25 (1.70-8.50) | 4.25 (1.70-8.50) | 65 (15-50) | Good Luck Charm, Protection, Treat ulcer | X | X | |||||||||
Hippopotamus | 765 | 765 | Protection Against Mermaids | X | |||||||||||
Honey Badger | 13.6 | 13.6 | 300 | Protection | X | ||||||||||
Hyena | 119.47 (3.40-340) | 119.47 (3.40-3.40) | Protection, Fetish Object, Against Witchcraft | X | X | ||||||||||
Lion | 59.88 (1.70-255) | 79.33 (1.70-425) | Fetish Objects, Protection | X | X | X | X | ||||||||
Mice | 2.13 (1.70-2.55) | 2.13 (1.70-2.55) | 15 | Against Witchcraft | X | ||||||||||
Monitor Lizard | 7.37 (5.10-8.50) | 7.37 (5.10-8.50) | |||||||||||||
Monkey | 7.65 (5.10-10.20) | 8.50 (6.80-10.20) | 200 | Help Memory, Fetish Objects | X | X | |||||||||
Owl | 5.44 (3.40-8.50) | 5.44 (3.40-8.50) | 50 | Against Witchcraft | X | X | |||||||||
Pangolin | 26.88 (0.34-59.50) | 26.88 (0.34-59.50) | Protection | X | X | X | X | ||||||||
Parrot | 36.19 (1.70-204) | 36.19 (1.70-204) | 80 (30-60) | Good Luck Charm | X | X | X | X | |||||||
Partridge | 5.53 (2.55-8.50) | 5.53 (2.55-8.50) | Good Luck Charm, Asthma | X | X | ||||||||||
Pied Crow | 13.60 | 13.60 | 40 | Against Witchcraft | X | ||||||||||
Porcupine | |||||||||||||||
Python | 5.84 (2.55-8.50) | 5.84 (2.55-8.50) | 130 (10-100) | Protection | X | X | X | X | |||||||
Sea Turtle | 76.50 | 76.50 | Asthma | X | |||||||||||
Shrew | 1.53 (0.51-2.55) | 1.53 (0.51-2.55) | 40 | Love | X | X | |||||||||
Sparrow Hawk | 5.51 (0.34-11.90) | 5.51 (0.34-11.90) | 20 | Protection, Ear Infections | X | X | X | ||||||||
Squirrel | 42.50 | 42.50 | 150 | Help Memory | X | ||||||||||
Tortoise | 9.07 (6.80-13.60) | 9.07 (6.80-13.60) | 70 (25-45) | Treat Knee Pain | X | X | |||||||||
Turtle | 5.53 (4.25-6.80) | 5.53 (4.25-6.80) | 220 20-200) | Asthma | X | ||||||||||
Viper | 3.64 (0.85-8.50) | 3.76 (0.85-8.50) | 590 (10-500) | Anti-Venom | X | X | X | ||||||||
Vulture | 47.94 (1.70-136) | 71.74 (1.70-255) | 200 (50-150) | Against Witchcraft, Help Child Birth | X | X | X | ||||||||
Warthog | 425 | 425 | Attract Clients | X | |||||||||||
Weaver Bird | 2.55 | 2.55 | Good Luck Charm | X |
Questionnaire
Data type: questionnaire
Table S1. List of inferred species and their respective scientific names (assigned to each common name provided by questionnaire respondents) based on the documented presence of wild populations in Togo
Data type: species data